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Plant responses to abiotic stress are neither singular nor linear. The research represented within this dissertation was intended to evaluate selected biochemical and physiological responses in two Arugulas (Images 1-5), to agronomic interventions designed to mitigate extreme environmental abiotic factors, characteristic of arid agricultural production regions. Plant stress responses were investigated under field conditions and within controlled environments (CE), during the course of a preliminary trial and three independent studies, all four directly related. The preliminary trial evaluated harvest and postharvest nutritional content (i.e., antioxidants) of two Arugulas, Eruca sativa (L.) Cav. ssp. sativa (P. Mill.) and Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC cv. Sylvetta; grown under field conditions in the semi-arid upper Sonoran Desert. In this trial, we defined baseline harvest and postharvest antioxidant values for the Arugulas, cultivated in a semi-arid environment. The initial study, conducted within a CE utilizing a water recycling system, evaluated changes in the nutritional value of three specialty leafy cruciferous vegetables: D. tenuifolia, E. sativa and Lepidium sativum; when subjected to increasing salinity levels in the nutrient solution. It was concluded that, when specific Crucifers are irrigated with moderately high levels of salinity, neither harvest nor postharvest nutritional values are compromised. The second study, investigated the response of a suite of plant physiological parameters (e.g., yield and photosynthetic rate) in the three Crucifers to salinity, within the CE. This research provided guideline salinity values where yields did not decline, and encourages growers to consider water resources compromised by salinity and nutrient solution recycling. During the third study, the influence of environmental conditions on the nutritional content in leafy vegetables, prevalent immediately before harvest, was investigated; by subjecting plants to reduced sunlight treatments and early irrigation termination. We observed that, modulating light intensity late in the season, and early irrigation termination strategies, modify the nutritional content of leafy vegetables; and potentially the subsequent postharvest shelf life. Collectively evaluated, this research suggests that simple agronomic interventions are valuable, yet practicable, tools that can enhance the nutritional content of specialty vegetables, in arid regions: be that intervention an imposed controlled-stress, utilizing nutrient recycling systems within a CE, or basic light-reduction and irrigation termination strategies within conventional fields systems.

Compostos fenólicos vêm despertando preocupação nos últimos anos e incitando grande atenção em todo o mundo ao desenvolvimento de métodos de determinação e monitoramento contínuo no ambiente devido a sua elevada toxicidade e persistência no meio ambiente, principalmente no sedimento, que devido sua característica em acumular compostos faz desse um dos compartimentos mais importantes na avaliação do nível de contaminação de ecossistemas aquáticos continentais. Neste estudo foi desenvolvido um método analítico utilizando cromatografia a gás acoplada ao detector de espectrometria de massas (GC/MS) para a determinação de seis compostos fenólicos e foi avaliada a presença dos mesmos em amostras de sedimento do Reservatório Guarapiranga, um reservatório de usos múltiplos da água, destinado principalmente para abastecimento público de água potável da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo. Para garantir a reprodutibilidade do método de forma confiável atendendo aos objetivos e qualidade propostos, a metodologia desenvolvida foi submetida ao processo de validação, em que os parâmetros seletividade, linearidade, faixa de trabalho, limite de detecção, limite de quantificação, tendência/recuperação, precisão (repetitividade, precisão intermediária e reprodutibilidade) e robustez foram avaliados. A metodologia aqui proposta mostrou ser adequada para alcançar o objetivo de avaliar os compostos em estudo, e pela sua aplicação foi constatada a presença dos compostos fenol e 3-metilfenol no sedimento do reservatório. Nas amostras de sedimento coletadas em 2011, o fenol foi o composto encontrado com maior frequência, com alguns resultados acima do LQ, principalmente em pontos com maior influência urbana, em concentrações de 0,09 a 0,19 μg g-1. Também foi encontrado o 3-metilfenol com resultados acima do LQ em dois pontos de coleta, G-11 e G-13, nas concentrações de 0,10 e 0,19 μg g-1 respectivamente. Já na coleta realizada em outubro de 2014, o composto 3-metilfenol foi quantificado em dois pontos de coleta, G-02 e G-07, nas concentrações de 0,07 e 0,08 μg g-1 respectivamente, sendo detectado abaixo do LQ em diversos pontos ao longo do reservatório. A presença destes compostos mesmo em baixas concentrações pode indicar uma contaminação decorrente de atividades industriais nas margens do reservatório e considerando-se que os compostos em sedimento com o tempo podem ser liberados na coluna dágua e causar contaminação na água de abastecimento este estudo fornece subsídios para revisão da legislação vigente que não estabelece limites para os compostos fenólicos na matriz de estudo. / Phenolic compounds are molecules with increased toxicity and persistence in the environment, mainly in the sediment. Furthermore, these molecules are capable of accumulate compounds, making them one of the most important at the evaluation of the contamination level on aquatic ecosystems in the continent. These features increased the preoccupation in the last years, inciting great attention around the globe about the development of methods to determine and continuously monitor these compounds in the environment. In this study, a new analytical methodology was developed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry system (GC/MS) at the determination and evaluation of six phenolic compounds in sediment samples of the Guarapiranga Reservoir, a water reservatory with multiple uses, intended primarily for public drinking water supply in the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo, Brazil. This methodology was submitted to the validation process, to ensure the reproducibility of the method in a trustworthy way, according to the objectives and quality proposed. Selectivity, linearity, working range, detection limit, quantification limit, trend/recovery, precision (repeatability, intermediate precision and reproducibility) and robustness are the parameters evaluated in this process. This methodology revealed itself adequate to achieve the goal of evaluating the compounds studied. Through this method, it was verified that the compounds phenol and 3-methylphenol are present at the reservoir´s sediment. In sediment samples collected in 2011, phenol was the compound found most frequently, with some results above LQ, especially on points with greater urban influence, in concentrations from 0.09 to 0.19 μg g-1. It was also found 3-methylphenol with results above LQ on two collected points, G-11 and G-13 at concentrations of 0.10 and 0.19 μg g-1 respectively. In 2014, the 3-methyl phenol compound was quantified in two collected points, G-02 and G-07 at concentrations of 0.07 and 0.08 μg g-1 respectively, being detected below the LQ at various points along the reservoir. The presence of these compounds, even in low concentrations, can indicate a contamination from industrial activities at the reservoir margin. Considering that these compounds in the sediment can, with time, be released in the water column and contaminate the water supply, this study provides subsidies for a review of the current legislation, that do not sets limits to the concentration of phenolic compounds on sediment matrix.

A maturação em tonéis de carvalho é uma prática importante amplamente empregada na produção de uma bebida de alta qualidade. Porém, apesar da biodiversidade no Brasil, o envelhecimento da cachaça em tonéis de madeira não é uma prática comum. Os tonéis de carvalho são usualmente mais empregados para o processo de maturação da cachaça. Estes tonéis foram usados previamente por produtores para maturação de vinho, conhaque, e envelhecimento de whisky na Europa e América do Norte. Os apontamentos de alternativa para o carvalho apresentados neste trabalho reportam o perfil fenólico dos extratos de cachaça de espécies de madeira brasileiras em comparação com o carvalho. O método de HPLC foi usado para a análise simultânea de 16 compostos fenólicos de relevância para o sabor e aroma de bebidas envelhecidas. As separações cromatográficas foram realizadas usando uma coluna Shimadzu de C18 (2 mm x 3μm x 250 mm) com gradiente de eluição. As eluições dos compostos foram monitoradas em seu máximo de absorção especifico através de um espectrofotômetro de arranjo de diodo com exceção de catequina e epicatequina, as quais foram monitoradas usando um detector espectrofluorométrico com emissão fixada a 280 nm e excitação a 313 nm. Os 16 compostos fenólicos seguintes foram analisados: (ácido gálico, (+)catequina, ácido vanílico, vanilina, (-)epicatequina, ácido seríngico, seringaldeído, escopoletina, cumarina, sinapaldeído, coniferaldeído, trans-resveratrol, ácido elágico, mirecetina, quercetina e o eugenol) em extratos de cachaça de diferentes espécies de madeira. Os principais compostos fenólicos identificados e quantificados foram: ácido de vanílico (média 0.18 mg/L), seringaldeído (média 0.048 mg/L) e vanilina (média 0.47 mg/L). A cumarina apresenta maior concentração nos extratos de madeira brasileira do que nos extratos de carvalho nos níveis do composto supracitado. Nas amostras de carvalho o teor médio foi de 0,0054 mg/L e nas espécies de madeira brasileiras o teor médio foi de 1,2 mg/L. Também foi analisada a presença de compostos fenólicos em cachaça, rum e whisky onde o seringaldeído e a vanilina foram os compostos majoritários. / Maturation in oak barrels is an important widely spread pratice in the production of a high quality spirit. However, despite the biodiversity in Brazil, the cachaça aging in wodden barrels is not a commun pratice. The use mostly imported oak barrels for the cachaça maturation process. This producers barrel had been usual maturation previously for wine, cognac, and whisky aging in Europe and North America. The aiming to present alternative to oak the present work report the phenolics profile of cachaça extracts of Brazilian wood species in comparation with oak. A HPLC method was used for the simultaneous analysis of 16 phenolic compounds of importance for the flavor and aroma of aged spirits. The chromatographic separations were carried out using a Shimadzu C18 column (2 mm x 3μm x 250 mm) with for elution gradient. The eluting compounds were monitored at their specific maximum of absorption through a diode array spectrophotometric detector with exception of catechin and epicatechin which were probed using a spectrofluorometric detector with emission set at 280 nm and excitation at 313 nm. Follow 16 phenolics compounds have been analisys: ( gallic acid, (+)cathechin, vanillic acid, vanilin, (-)epicathechin, seringic acid, seringaldehyde, escopoletin, coumarin, sinapaldehyde, coniferaldehyde, trans-resveratrol, ellagic acid, mirecetin, quercetin and the eugenol) in cachaça extracts of different wood species. The major phenolic compounds identified and quantified are vanillc acid (medium 0.18 mg/L), seringaldehyde (medium 0.048 mg/L) and vanillin (medium 0.47 mg/L). The coumarin is on higher concentration in Brazilian wood extract then in oak the levels of the supracited compounds. In oak samples with medium values of 0.0054 mg/L and 1.2 mg/L for oak and Brazilian wood species respectively. Furthemore, the presence of phenolics were Abstract IQSC-USP iv investiged in cachaça, rum, and whisky revealing seringaldehyde and vanillin as the major components.

Molecules of anthocyanins and quinones possess distinctive electrophilic character, which is demonstrated by their facile reactions with nucleophiles such as sulfite, thiols, amines and water. In food systems, one of their likely targets would be nucleophilic centers in the side chains of amino acids. Our experiments revealed that on a short-term exposure (1 72 h) to free amino acids in solutions with pH < 7 glycosides of cyanidin and quinones of phenolic acids did not yield nucleophilic addition products with most of the amino acids. A notable exception was cysteine, which reacted with oxidized phenolic acids and caused anthocyanin bleaching at elevated temperature. Thermodynamic aspects of the nucleophilic addition reactions were investigated with the aid of computational chemistry. We have also found that enzymatic browning in apricot puree does not lead to trans-cis -carotene isomerization, contrary to some previous reports. Increased availability of -carotene for extraction was recorded for browned apple- and pear-apricot purees in comparison with the non-browned purees. / Food Science and Technology

Nutrition of host plants has been shown to have a direct effect on the productivity of numerous insect pests, including western flower thrips [(WFT) Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande)] – a major pest on both horticulture and agronomic crops. Plants use constitutive and induced chemical defenses to aid in protection against phytophagous insects. Reductions in WFT abundance in response to decreased nutrient availability has been attributed to the reduced availability of nutrients required for WFT productivity. The goals of this research were to determine the effects of fertilization on chemical defenses, and subsequent effects on WFT feeding and abundance. More importantly, the effects of fertilization and WFT feeding on plant growth, development, physiology, and quality were determined to assess the viability of optimizing fertilization in order to increase host plant resistance in gerbera. Constitutive (i.e. phenolics) and induced (i.e. jasmonic acid) chemical defenses were enhanced when fertilization was reduced. Reducing fertilization increased the total phenolics and wound- and WFT-induced jasmonic acid (JA) accumulation in gerbera. The enhanced chemical defenses in lower fertility plants resulted in reduced WFT abundance and feeding damage. These results indicate that the strategy for some plant species under nutrient stress is to increase constitutive defenses, while maintaining, or possibly increasing inducible defenses instead of growth. Similar to 0X fertility plants (only supplied with initial fertilizer charge in commercial media), 0.3X (received 30% of recommended rate) gerberas had reduced biomass and greater chemical defenses compared to 1X plants, but these plants did not appear to be nutritionally stressed—and 0.3X plants without WFT were rated as marketable. Reducing fertilization by 70% (0.3X) did not affect flower dry mass (DM) or the rate of flowering, but the flower stalks (peduncles) were taller in response to the fertilizer reduction. Hence, reducing fertilization to a moderate level in gerbera production may reduce susceptibility to WFT, while producing marketable crops.

This thesis is an investigation of the effects of whole beans, with different levels of phenolics level, on colonic inflammation in mice. C57BL/6 male mice were fed a basal diet (BD) supplemented with or without 20% bean flour for 3 weeks. Colitis was induced by 2% dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) in mice drinking water. Phenolic determinations of the bean flours revealed that within each pair of beans, the darker bean had higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity compared to the lighter one. In addition, only coloured beans had anthocyanin. When bean were consumed both prior to and during DSS cycle, the mice experienced both disease attention and aggravation. However, when bean consumption was limited to prior to DSS induction only, mice had reduced colitis upon later DSS induction. Overall, findings suggest that the effects of bean may differ depending on the timing of consumption. / Agriculture and Agri-Food of Canada, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs

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There is growing demand for functional foods and ingredients as a result of their health-promoting properties. In this work, the potential of common buckwheat flour (Supreme) and bran (Farinetta) in improving upon the phenolic and antioxidant properties of durum spaghetti was investigated. The effects of processing and cooking on these properties were also studied in addition to the cooking quality and carbohydrate digestibility of spaghetti products. Among uncooked spaghetti samples, there were huge increments of between 114 and 522% for TPC, 50 and 242% for TFC, 359 and 1000% for DPPH antioxidant activity, and 101 and 197% for ORAC values of the experimental spaghetti samples over the control. Farinetta contributed more phenolic and antioxidant compounds than Supreme flour. Processing resulted in losses ranging from 1.2 to 33.7% in TFC and 42.0 to 55.3% in DPPH antioxidant activity. Cooking also resulted in significant losses (p < 0.05) of up to 39% in TPC, 40% in DPPH antioxidant activity, 22% in rutin content, and 55% in TFC in experimental samples. Cooking losses of up to 8.82% were recorded for the experimental samples and were higher in Farinetta-substituted products. These were generally higher than that of the control (6.33%). The introduction of buckwheat increased carbohydrate digestibility of products, but at the same time resulted in an overall lower release of reducing sugars after of 120 min of in vitro hydrolysis. Results show that the phenolic and antioxidant properties of durum spaghetti fortified with buckwheat milling fractions can compare favourably with those of 100% whole buckwheat pasta, and at the same time, maintain a higher cooking quality due to the presence of semolina.

Whole ground white, high tannin and black sorghum with and without additional high tannin sorghum bran were used in different proportions to develop ready to eat breakfast cereals and snacks. The effect of extrusion on the phenolic compounds and on in vitro starch digestibility of sorghum based cereals and snacks were observed. Gluten free and gluten containing breakfast cereal and snacks were developed with different physical, chemical and sensory characteristic. By increasing the sorghum and bran level in the formulations, the bulk density of extrudates was increased while expansion ratio was decreased. Bowl life of extrudates was increased up to 18 min. when 60% whole ground white sorghum was used with additional 10% high tannin sorghum bran. Water soluble index was significantly higher for the extrudates without additional bran and decreased as bran was added. A positive correlation between water soluble index and expansion ratio (R^2=0.89) indicated that the more expansion ratio provided a large surface area for water to interact with starch and other soluble components. The retention of total phenols in these extrudates varied from 13-41% and it was found that extrudates with additional high tannin sorghum bran had more total phenols than extrudates without it. Sorghum extrudates showed a significant reduction in antioxidant activity varied from 21-83%. Similarly, the effect of extrusion on condensed tannins was detrimental, and their retention was ranged from 12-28%. The smaller particle size of ground sorghum increased the surface area of contact between composite flour components and extruder barrel which promoted interactions during extrusion, lowering condensed tannins and antioxidant activity. All sorghum based extrudates had significantly (P<0.05) lower starch digestibility than that of corn flour extrudates. All types of sorghum had non-significant difference in starch digestibility from 0.5-2hrs. After 16 hrs., high tannin sorghum extrudates had the lowest starch digestibility (79%), which was significantly different from other sorghum types. There was a negative correlation between the rapid digestible starch and tannin contents (R^2=0.62). Breakfast cereals made from different types of sorghum and bran levels were statistically equally rated in taste and overall acceptability.