Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-03-23T11:27:35Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Raphael Silva Tomáz - 2016.pdf: 2331721 bytes, checksum: a9647e44c4843954a331dd4514b39b2c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-03-23T11:27:51Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Raphael Silva Tomáz - 2016.pdf: 2331721 bytes, checksum: a9647e44c4843954a331dd4514b39b2c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-23T11:27:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Raphael Silva Tomáz - 2016.pdf: 2331721 bytes, checksum: a9647e44c4843954a331dd4514b39b2c (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-22 / The importance of pigments to human civilization is evident and well documented. Although these materials were discovered many years ago, research continues to this day, industries often require new colors and more reproducible and stable shades. The selection of raw materials is of paramount importance in order to acquire high quality mineral pigments, color luminescence and purity, free of chemical contaminants. Mineral pigments have been gaining commercial acceptance as a result of growing ecological awareness, which aims to reduce the environmental impact of synthetic production methods. The most common mineral pigments are iron oxides, manganite, chromite, quartz, feldspar, monazite, zirconite, titanite muscovite and biotite. Most of the iron production in Brazil, whether processing the hematite or magnetite, is done by flotation and magnetic separation. Flotation impairs the use of oxides for purposes other than steel production due to the huge amount of chemicals, mainly surfactants, involved in this step. Jigging is a process of hydraulic separation consisting of the repeated expansion and vertical contraction of a bed of particles by the pulsating movement of water. The result of this movement is the stratification of the material. Anglo American Phosphates from Brazil has a tailings production of 2 Mt (million tons) with barite contents of 6% and magnetite about 40%, and this material is sent in full to the tailings dam. The removal of the magnetite from the phosphate production process leads to three major gains: the first would be the reduction of material sent to the flotation steps of barite and apatite, the second is the generation of a material that could be used for other purposes, such as The production of pigments, with the generation of a co-product and the third would be the reduction of material sent to the tailings dam, thus avoiding the construction of new dams and reducing environmental impacts. The enrichment of the reject by the jigging for the extraction of this mineral is justified due to the specific mass difference of the minerals involved, together with the simplicity of operation and its low operating cost. Concentration by gravimetric methods, based on the density difference between magnetite and quartz, may be an option for the use of the reject of the phosphate rock production for the production of high-grade magnetite to be used in the production of pigments. The results show that it is possible to separate magnetite for the purpose of producing pigments in certain parameters of jigue operation. / A importância dos pigmentos para a civilização humana é evidente e bem documentada. Embora, estes materiais tenham sido descobertos há tantos anos as pesquisas continuam até hoje, pois as indústrias exigem frequentemente novos tons e cores cada vez mais reprodutíveis e estáveis. A seleção das matérias-primas é de suma importância para se adquirir pigmentos minerais de alta qualidade, luminescência de cor e pureza, ou seja, livre de contaminantes químicos. Os pigmentos minerais vêm ganhando aceitação comercial em consequência da crescente conscientização ecológica, que visa diminuir o impacto ambiental provocado pelos métodos sintéticos de produção. Os pigmentos minerais mais comuns são os óxidos de ferro, manganita, cromita, o quartzo, o feldspato, monazita, zirconita, titânia e micas. A maior parte da produção de ferro do Brasil, seja processando a hematita quanto a magnetita, é feita por flotação e separação magnética. A flotação prejudica a utilização dos óxidos para outros fins além da produção de aço devido à enorme quantidade de produtos químicos, principalmente surfactantes, envolvidos nesta etapa. A jigagem é um processo de separação hidráulica que consiste da repetida expansão e contração vertical de um leito de partículas pelo movimento pulsante de água. O resultado desse movimento é a estratificação do leito. A Anglo American Fosfatos do Brasil possui uma produção de rejeito de 2 Mt (milhões toneladas) com teores de barita de 6% e magnetita por volta de 40%, sendo esse material enviado integralmente para a barragem de rejeito. A retirada da magnetita do processo de produção de fosfato trás três grandes ganhos: o primeiro seria a redução de material enviado para os passos de flotação da barita e apatita, o segundo é a geração de um material que poderá ser utilizado para outros fins, como a produção de pigmentos, com a geração de um co-produto e o terceiro seria a redução de material enviado para a barragem de rejeito, evitando assim a construção de novas barragens e reduzindo os impactos ambientais. O enriquecimento do rejeito pela jigagem para a extração desse mineral se justifica devido à diferença de massa específica dos minerais envolvidos, aliado a simplicidade de operação do equipamento e pelo seu baixo custo de operação. A concentração por métodos gravíticos, baseada na diferença de densidade entre a magnetita e o quartzo, pode ser uma opção para o aproveitamento do rejeito da produção de rocha fosfática para a produção de magnetita de alto teor para ser utilizada na produção de pigmentos. Os resultados mostram que é possível a separação da magnetita para fins de produzir pigmentos em determinados parâmetros de operação do jigue.

A visão de cores é possível devido aos diferentes tipos de fotorreceptores e ao processamento pós-receptoral da informação gerada após ativação destas células pela luz. Análises genéticas, funcionais e morfológicas podem ser utilizadas no estudo da visão de cores. Neste trabalho, foram estudadas a genética dos pigmentos visuais de macacos do gênero Cebus e a genética e a psicofísica da visão de cores de humanos com e sem discromatopsias hereditárias. O sequenciamento dos genes que expressam as opsinas presentes nos cones L e M foi realizado em dois grupos de macacos-prego mantidos na UFRJ e na UFPA. Treze animais do Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho da UFRJ e vinte animais da Escola de Primatas da UFPA tiveram o sangue coletado, o material genético extraído e os éxons 3 e 5 dos genes que codificam as opsinas L/M sequenciados após amplificação por PCR. Os aminoácidos localizados nas posições 180, 277 e 285 das opsinas foram identificados e com este resultado foi determinada a curva de absorção espectral das opsinas. O resultado foi a caracterização de seis machos dicromatas, quatro fêmeas tricromatas e três fêmeas dicromatas entre os animais da UFRJ. Entre os animais da UFPA, dezesseis machos eram dicromatas, uma fêmea era tricromata e três fêmeas eram dicromatas. Entre os alelos encontrados nesses grupos, a combinação SFT, cujo pico de absorção espectral da opsina é de 546-553, foi descrita pela primeira vez no gênero Cebus. A variedade de alelos encontrada entre os dois grupos é devida às diferentes condições ambientais nos locais de origem dos animais. No estudo com humanos, a visão de cores de 19 sujeitos controles (5 homens e 14 mulheres) e 16 sujeitos daltônicos (14 homens e 1 mulher), moradores no estado de São Paulo (SP) foi avaliada através de quatro testes psicofísicos e análises genéticas dos pigmentos visuais. Estes resultados foram comparados com os dados descritos por Gonçalves (2006) em sujeitos daltônicos do estado do Pará (PA). Na correlação entre o fenótipo e o genótipo dos sujeitos estudados neste trabalho, foi observada uma correspondência de 100% entre a classificação da discromatopsia obtida com as análises genéticas e os testes psicofísicos / Color vision is possible due to different types of photoreceptors and to the post receptoral processing of the information generated after cell activation by the light. Genetic, functional and morphological analysis can be used as tools in the color vision studies. In the present work the genetic of the visual pigments from Cebus sp and the genetic and the psychophysics of normal and defective human color vision were evaluated. The sequencing of the L and M genes of 33 capuchin monkeys was performed. Blood samples were collected from 13 monkeys from Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho (UFRJ) and 20 monkeys from Escola de Primatas (UFPA), the DNA was extracted and exons 3 and 5 from L/M genes were sequenced after PCR amplification. For each animal the 180, 277 and 285 aminoacids were identified and the spectral absorbance curve was estimated based on their sequence. In the UFRJ group, six males and three females were identified as dichromats and four females were identified as thrichromats. In the UFPA group sixteen males and three females were dichromats and one female was thrichromat. The SFT aminoacid combination was described for the first time in the Cebus genera. The allelic diversity described in these animals is probably due to the distinct environmental conditions from the place of birth of the animals. In the human study 19 control subjects (5 men and 14 women) and sixteen daltonic subjects (14 men and 1 woman), all from São Paulo city, had the colour vision evaluated with 4 colour vision tests and with the visual pigment genetics. The results were compared to the data described by Gonçalves (2006) in daltonic subjects from Pará state. The correlation between phenotype and genotype of the subjects from SP had a 100% of correspondence in the genetic and psychophysical classifications of dischromatopsia

O estresse de luz pode afetar consideravelmente o crescimento e o desenvolvimento dos organismos fotossintetizantes. Nestas situações, é comum verificar respostas químicas que podem indicar diferentes estratégias de fotoproteção adotado pelo organismo. No presente trabalho, foram desenvolvidas metodologias de análise e extração de pigmentos fotossintetizantes e compostos fenólicos na macroalga vermelha Gracilariopsis tenuifrons com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos do aumento intensidade de luz sobre estes compostos. Foi verificado que aumento da intensidade de luz não provocou redução na biomassa desta alga, ao contrário houve um maior incremento. Os pigmentos majoritários no extrato foram clorofila α, β-caroteno e zeaxantina. O carotenoide β-caroteno teve um comportamento correlacionado com o pigmento clorofila a, tendo as concentrações reduzidas com o aumento da intensidade de luz, sugerindo que ambos os pigmentos possuam uma mesma função na fotossíntese. Já a concentração da zeaxantina aumentou com a intensidade de luz nos dias iniciais, indicando uma função fotoproteção deste pigmento nesta alga. A capacidade redutora do extrato aumentou com a intensidade luminosa. No entanto, não foi possível afirmar se esse aumento foi realmente devido à síntese de compostos fenólicos ou a outras substâncias que desempenhem o mesmo papel. As análises em CLAE revelaram que um derivado da micosporina palitinol apresentou alta relação com o aumento da intensidade de luz, sendo essa resposta altamente correlacionada com os resultados no ensaio no Folin-Ciocalteu. Em conclusão, das substâncias analisadas neste trabalho, a zeaxantina e o derivado do palitinol foram as que apresentaram os resultados mais evidentes como antioxidantes / The high-light stress can adversely affect growth and development of photosyn-thetic organisms. In these situations, it is common to note chemical responses that may indicate different strategies of photoprotection. In this study, protocols were optimized for analysis and extraction of phenolic compounds and photosynthetic pig-ments in macrophytic red algae Gracilariopsis tenuifrons in order of evaluat-ing the effects of high-light stress on these compounds. It was found that an increase in light intensity has not caused decrease in biomass of algae; on the contrary, promotes a greater increase in biomass. Zeaxanthin, β-carotene and chlorophyll α were the major pigments present in the extract. The β-carotene and chlorophyll a were inversely dependent on the intensity of light. Both pigments were highly correlated sug-gesting the same role in photosynthesis. The concentration of the zeaxanthin was de-pendent on the intensity of light in the initial days, indicating a photoprotection function for this pigment. The reduction capacity of the extract increased with light intensity. However, it was not possible to state that this increase was actually due to the synthesis of phenolic compounds or other substances that perform the same role. The HPLC ana-lyzes revealed that a derivative of micosporina palitinol showed high correlation with the increase in light intensity. This response was highly correlated with the results for Folin-Ciocalteu assay. In conclusion, from all compounds analyzed in this work, zeax-anthin and the palitinol derivative presented clearer results as antioxidants

Pro zpracování a nakládání s odpadními substráty lze použít řadu postupů a možností. Stále se rozšiřující spektrum metod a technologií umožňuje další využití materiálů a energie ve formě obnovitelných zdrojů. Jedním z řešení pro zpětné získávání některých odpadních materiálů je využití tzv. bílé (průmyslové) biotechnologie, která zahrnuje praktickou aplikaci metabolických aktivit celé řady různých mikroorganizmů včetně jejich specifických biologických drah k produkci látek s vysokou přidanou hodnotou. V předložené práci screeningového typu bylo pro zhodnocení odpadních surovin využito několik druhů mikroorganizmů kultivovaných za různých specifických podmínek včetně kultivace na odpadních materiálech získaných zejména ze zemědělství a potravinářství. Cílem bylo získání vybraných typů průmyslově cenných metabolitů, případně energie. Předložená studie byla zaměřena na srovnání růstu a produkčních vlastností několika kmenů karotenogenních kvasinek rodu Rhodotorula, Sporobolomyces a Cystofilobasidium, kultivovaných v médiích s obsahem glycerolu (technický a odpadní glycerol), dále v médiích obsahujících pšeničnou slámu, hydrolyzovanou slámu zpracovanou v hydrotermálním procesu při vysoké teplotě a zbytky po filtraci hydrolyzátu. Dalším testovaným odpadním substrátem byla syrovátka. Všechny testované kvasinky byly schopny využít glycerol jako jediný zdroj uhlíku. Produkce biomasy při kultivaci na technickém glycerolu se více či méně přibližovala kontrole (cca 7 - 10 gl-1), zatímco při kultivaci na odpadním glycerolu byla produkce vyšší (10.9 - 14.5 gl-1). Produkce karotenoidů a ergosterolu byla vyšší v glukózovém médiu než v médiu s obsahem glycerolu. Všechny testované kvasinky byly rovněž schopny produkovat neutrální lipidy, a to v rozmezí 11 - 15 %, s výjimkou C. capitatum, kde produkce dosahovala více než 22 % obsahu neutrálních lipidů. Pšeničná sláma a produkty z ní připravené se ukázaly být využitelnými substráty s vysokým potenciálem pro produkci biomasy i metabolitů, a to zejména u kmene S. roseus. Syrovátka, jako odpadní produkt mlékarenství, byla účinně využita jako substrát pro kokultivaci karotenogenních kvasinek a bakterií mléčného kvašení. Kokultivační proces může vyvolat nadprodukci pigmentů a ergosterolu, přičemž získaná biomasa díky obohacení o bakterie L. casei dosahovala vyšší kvality. Za účelem energetického využití mikrobiálního metabolismu formou mikrobiálních palivových článků, tzv. „Microbial Fuel Cell“ byla aplikována směsná kultura bakterií získaných z čistírny odpadních vod. Tyto mikroorganizmy hrají významnou roli při výrobě elektrické energie a současně také při čištění odpadních vod. Elektřina je generována přímo z organických látek přítomných v kultivačním médiu a lze ji použít pro provoz čistírny samotné a případně i pro další aplikace.

Presented work is focused on heme metabolism with the main interest in bile pigments. Recent data indicate that bilirubin is not only a waste product of the heme catabolic pathway, but also emphasize its important biological impacts, including possible antiproliferative effects. Until today metabolism of bilirubin has not been completely elucidated, which has prevented detailed evaluation of its potential anticancer action. The aim of this study was to clarify some aspects of heme catabolism with respect for antiproliferative properties of its products. Based on the fact that bilirubin potently affects carcinogenesis of the intestine, we initially investigated not properly known bilirubin metabolism by intestinal bacteria. We studied bilirubin neurotoxic effects in hyperbilirubinemic Gunn rats - its distribution in the brain tissue and its degradation during pathological conditions, such as severe newborn jaundice or Crigler-Najjar syndrome. Possible approaches to improve the treatment of severe unconjugated hyperbilirubinemias, combination of the phototherapy and human albumin administration were also investigated. The main reason of these studies was the fact that mechanisms of neurotoxic effects of bilirubin are predominantly identical with those, by which bilirubin inhibits cancer cells growth....

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Les lacs au Québec ont été soumis à une influence anthropique importante depuis l'établissement des colonies européennes, il y a quatre cents ans. Les apports anthropiques du défrichage, de l'agriculture et de l'urbanisation ont plusieurs conséquences variables pour la limnologie des lacs à travers la province. L'augmentation des températures et les périodes sans glace plus longue due aux changements climatiques au long du dernier siècle auraient pu occasionner des impacts additionnels sur la limnologie des lacs. Les rapports sur l'eutrophisation au Québec sont en croissance, mais des données limnologiques à long terme ne sont pas disponibles. L'étude présente a adopté une approche paléolimnologique afin de fournir une meilleure compréhension des changements a long terme dans les lacs du sud du Québec. Spécifiquement, ce projet a utilisé les pigments biomarqueurs prélevés dans les sédiments des lacs pour examiner la variation historique des communautés phytoplanctoniques. Les pigments photosynthétiques identifiés par chromatographie liquide de haute performance (HPLC) ont été la chlorophylle a (et ces dérivés) et les caroténoïdes d'algues, soient β, β-carotène, alloxanthine, crocoxanthine, diadinoxanthine, fucoxanthine, lutéine, vaucheriaxanthine, échinénone, zéaxanthine et canthaxanthine. L'âge des sédiments a été déterminé par les radio-isotopes 210Pb et 14C, et la concentration de matière organique a été déterminé par perte-au-feu. Une analyse HPLC détaillée d’une carotte de sédiment du Lac Saint-Augustin a montré trois périodes majeures de l’eutrophisation qui correspondent aux augmentations d’activité anthropique dans le lac. Les concentrations de chlorophylle a ont augmenté de 2,35 mg g-1 OM-1 en 1682 à 55,4 mg g-1 OM-1 en 2011. Les biomarqueurs spécifiques des pigments fossiles ont été utilisés pour décrire l’historique de la biomasse phytoplanctonique dans le lac et a indiqué la première occurrence de floraison de cyanobactéries à la fin des années 1860. Une étude de dix lacs québécois a examiné la variabilité de l’ampleur de l’eutrophisation de la région et le synchronisme des réponses à l’enrichissement des lacs. Les résultats ont montré que les populations des cyanobactéries et des autres phytoplanctons ont augmentés à des niveaux sans précédent dans les dernières décennies. Par rapport aux conditions avant la colonisation par les Européens, il y a eu une augmentation générale de pigments et de dominance des cyanobactéries, ce qui souligne l’impact du développement anthropique sur l’eau douce de la région. / Quebec lakes have been subjected to substantial anthropogenic influence since the establishment of European colonies four hundred years ago. Anthropogenic inputs from land clearing, agriculture and urbanization have resulted in variable impacts on the limnology of lakes across the province. Rising temperatures and longer ice-free periods as a result of changing climate over the past century may have resulted in additional impacts on the limnology of these lakes. Reports of eutrophication in the province of Quebec are increasing, but long-term limnological data are not available. The present study adopted a paleolimnological approach to provide an improved understanding of long term change in the lakes of southern Québec. Specifically, the project employed pigment biomarkers from lake sediments to examine the historical variations in phytoplankton communities. The photosynthetic pigments identified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were chlorophyll a (and its derivatives) and the algal carotenoids β, β-carotene, alloxanthin, crocoxanthin, diadinoxanthin, fucoxanthin, lutein, vaucheriaxanthin, echinenone, zeaxanthin and canthaxanthin. Sediment age was determined by 210Pb and 14C, and organic matter concentration was determined by loss-on-ignition. The detailed HPLC analysis of a sediment core from Lac Saint-Augustin revealed three major periods of enrichment corresponding to increases of anthropogenic activity in the lake. Chlorophyll a concentrations increased significantly from the base of the core to present day, rising from 2.35 mg g-1 OM-1 in 1682 to 55.4 mg g-1 OM-1 in 2011. Specific fossil pigment biomarkers were used to describe the history of phytoplankton biomass in the lake, and indicated the first occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms in the 1860s. A study of ten Quebec lakes addressed the variability in magnitude of eutrophication in this region, and the synchronicity in timing and responses to enrichment among lakes. The results showed cyanobacterial and associated phytoplankton populations have risen to unprecedented levels over the last few decades of ongoing development. Relative to pre-European settlement conditions, there was an overall increase in pigments and cyanobacterial dominance, highlighting the overall impact of anthropogenic development on the freshwater resources of this region.

No / An opportunity was afforded to analyse pigment specimens from an unrestored oil painting in the style of the English School of the mid-18th Century prior to conservation being undertaken. Raman spectroscopy was adopted to characterise the pigments and indicated the presence of a novel red pigment which was assigned to the complex chromium mineral, hemihedrite, in addition to other interesting materials found in combination. This is the first recorded identification of hemihedrite spectral signals in an art context in a range of mineral pigments that are otherwise typical of this period and some hypotheses are presented to explain its presence based on its occurrence with associated mineral pigments. It is suggested that the presence of powdered glass identified in certain areas of the painting enhanced the reflectivity of the pigment matrix.

Sediment records of two Italian subalpine lakes (Lake Garda and Lake Ledro) were analyzed in order to reconstruct their ecological evolution over the past several hundred years. A multi-proxy and multi-site approach was applied in order to disentangle the effects of local anthropogenic forcings, such as nutrients, and climate impacts on the two lakes and their catchments. Biological indicators (sub-fossil pigments, diatoms and Cladocera) were used to reconstruct changes in the aquatic food web and to define the lake reference conditions, while geochemical methods, i.e. wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (WD-XRF), were used to provide quantitative information on the different physical or chemical processes affecting both lake and catchment systems. Sub-fossil pigments and diatoms, together with their respective inferred TP values, suggested very stable oligotrophic conditions in both lakes until the 1960s. The period following was affected by nutrient enrichment, which led to a drastic shift in the phytoplanktonic community. The response of sub-fossil pigments and diatoms to major climatic anomalies such as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly (MCA) and the Little Ice Age (LIA) were not pronounced, and the taxonomic composition remained relatively stable. On the contrary, these proxies showed an indirect response to climate variability since the beginning of the nutrient enrichment phase in the 1960s. In Lake Garda, the winter temperature regulates the water column mixing, which in its turn controls the degree of nutrient fertilization of the entire water column, and the related phytoplankton growth. In Lake Ledro a rapid reorganization of planktonic diatoms was observed only during the temperature recovery after the LIA, while recent temperature effects are masked by the prevailing nutrient effects. In Lake Garda, Cladocera remains responded in quantitative and qualitative terms to climatic changes, whereas in Lake Ledro they appeared to be mainly affected by variations in hydrological regimes, i.e. flood events. Cladocera remains corroborated the nutrient enrichment after the 1960s in both lakes as inferred by diatoms and pigments. In Lake Garda, the geochemical data showed a pronounced shift in elemental composition since the mid-1900s, when major elements and lithogenic tracers started to decrease, while some elements related to redox conditions and other (contaminant) trace elements increased. The general trends since the mid-1900s agree with the biological records. However, some differences recorded in the two different basins of Lake Garda reflected the effects of local conditions, both related to hydrology and sedimentation patterns. Lake Ledro showed higher short-term variability for most elements, even though some features were comparable to Lake Garda. The geochemical record of Lake Ledro revealed a major influence of human-induced lake-level fluctuations and catchment properties. This paleolimnological study allows us to place temporally restricted limnological surveys into a longer-term secular perspective, which is highly valuable for the definition of lake reference conditions. Because the restoration targets are usually based on the lake reference conditions, this study highlighted also the necessity to pay particular attention to the lake-specific sensitivity patterns. The multi-proxy and multi-site approach showed that the lake conditions of large and deep lakes in northern Italy, such as Lake Garda, are mainly driven by nutrient enrichment and/or climate change. In contrast, smaller lakes with larger catchment areas, such as Lake Ledro, are seemingly more impacted by conditions and processes occurring in the drainage basin.

The focus of this study was analytical investigations of Egyptian paintings, mainly Coptic icons and Islamic wooden ceilings, dating from 1300-1900 using multi-instrumental techniques. Twenty three Coptic icons and three wooden ceilings dated from different periods and painted by different painters in case of icons were examined. The materials used including pigments, media, varnishes, ground layers and gold layers. The surface stratigraphy of paint samples, their layered structured and the composition of materials used in each layer were analysed. Variations in painting techniques, pigments palettes, paint media and varnishes applied in Egyptian paintings according to painters, time and type of paintings were revealed. A total of twenty-eight organic and inorganic pigments were identified in this study, of which nine have never been previously included as a part of the Egyptian pigment palettes, namely; smalt, lapis lazuli, indigo, pararealgar, Prussian blue, chrome yellow, barium yellow, barium white and hydromagnesite. The identification of hydromagnesite, which has never been to date considered as a pigment either in Egypt or elsewhere and the identification of smalt from the mid-14th century, whose reported earliest large scale use was in the 16th century. Two types of resins were identified as a constituent of the oil/resin varnish applied on Coptic icons of which Venice turpentine has been identified for the first time as an ingredient of Egyptian varnishes. The identification of mosaic gold in an 18th C. icon, a novel usage of dammar resin and the multilayered structure of the white ground layers were revealed.