There are many technologies being developed for crop breeding. Two interesting technologies are genetic modification and genetic editing. Competitive pressures and changing consumer preferences are forcing organizations to invest heavily in these two technologies. Organizations must decide which traits they want to target and must commit significant time a money to the project. Traditionally, firms would decide which project to embark on if the project is net present value positive. Throughout the research and development process managers have flexibility to abandon the project once new information is received. That flexibility has value and real option analysis must be performed to value that flexibility. Once the value of a GM and GE project is determined, how might an organization decide which project to do? The concept of minimum required acreage (MRA) is developed in this study, allowing organizations to compare GM and GE technologies and decide which project to invest it.

This study records all known legume (Leguminosae/Fabaceae) species indigenous to South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland to establish distribution patterns and optimum climatic and soil conditions for growth. The main purpose was to propose a list of legume species for further evaluation of their pasture potential. Collection data supplied by the National Herbarium (PRE) Computerised Information System were recorded to establish the distribution patterns of species based on the bioregions vegetation map. A total of 1 654 species are known to be indigenous, representing 24 tribes and 122 genera. The grouping of legume species into five main clusters and 16 Leguminochoria is ecologically described, with the highest legume species richness found in the Northern Mistbelt Forest. Key and diagnostic species are provided for each Leguminochorion. Soil pH and mean annual minimum temperature were found to be the main drivers for distinguishing between legume assemblages. The optimum climatic and soil conditions for growth are described as well as the available descriptive attributes for species recorded. Information on the range of tolerance of most species to abiotic factors is presented. Mean annual rainfall and soil pH are highly correlated with the distribution pattern of most species, followed by mean annual minimum temperature. Legume species adapted to a wide range of soil pH levels and low soil phosphorus levels are recorded. Existing data on the cultivation and grazing or browsing status of indigenous legumes were used to select 584 species found mainly in the Central Bushveld, Mopane and Lowveld Bioregions to be further evaluated for their pasture potential. Known characteristics were used to categorise species. Species contained in the tribe Phaseoleae are of special interest since it contains most of the genera with present-day agricultural value, i.e. Eriosema, Rhynchosia and Vigna species are listed as having high potential as pasture species. This study has shown that the descriptive and distribution data accumulated by botanists (notably taxonomists) could be of beneficial use in meeting agricultural objectives. Indigenous legumes are adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions and represent a valuable but largely unexploited natural resource for pasture development and soil conservation practices. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Plant Science / unrestricted

Un requisito previo en cualquier programa de conservación de Recursos Fitogenéticos es la la estimación de la diversidad existente. El inventario de las especies parientes de cultivos prioritarios en Venezuela (PSC) se basó en los principales Catálogos de Flora del país, seleccionando los taxones próximamente relacionados con los cultivos. Se incluyeron 47 géneros, 217 especies y 228 taxones, correspondientes a 28 familias botánicas. De éstas, las que tienen mayor riqueza son: Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Araceae, Lauraceae, Dioscoreaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae y Myrtaceae. Existen 26 especies endémicas, pertenecientes a los géneros Xanthosoma, Persea, Dioscorea, Prunus y Manihot. Los géneros nativos con especies del pool genético primario del cultivo son Manihot, Solanum (Sección Petota), Lycopersicon, Ananas, Capsicum, Dioscorea, Xanthosoma, Phaseolus, Theobroma, Ipomoea, Gossypium, Arracacia y Psidium. El número de taxones evaluados según los criterios de la IUCN es prácticamente nulo y la representación de accesiones venezolanas de PSC en los bancos de germoplasma nacionales e internacionales es muy baja. En relación con el estudio taxonómico del género Phaseolus, se reconocen tres especies en Venezuela: P. lunatus L., P. vulgaris L. y P. dumosus Macfad., que se diferencian fácilmente por la morfología de las flores, brácteas, bractéolas y legumbres. Phaseolus lunatus y P. vulgaris crecen en estado silvestre y cultivado y Phaseolus dumosus corresponde a la forma cultivada que se ha naturalizado. En relación al género Macroptilium, los resultados del análisis morfológico, molecular y biogeográfico de las especies del complejo Macroptilium gracile indican que los taxones pertenecen a una sola especie con tres taxones infraespecíficos, de los cuales dos son nuevas combinaciones: una subespecie no típica (Macroptilium gracile subsp. scolecocarpus (Piper) Berlingeri & M.B. Crespo, comb. nov.) y dos variedades en la subespecie tipo (M. gracile subsp. gracile var. gracile y M. gracile subsp. gracile var. subcoriaceum (Benth.) Berlingeri & M.B. Crespo, comb. nov.). Phaseolus diversifolius Pittier y P. unilobatus Pittier corresponden a sinonimias de Macroptilium gracile var. subcoriaceum y M. gracile var. gracile, respectivamente. En el género Macroptilium se reconocen seis especies en Venezuela: M. atropurpureum (DC.) Urb., M. lathyroides (L.) Urb., M. gracile (Poepp. ex Benth.) Urb., M. bracteatum (Nees & Mart.) Maréchal & Baudet, M. erythroloma (Mart. ex Benth.) Urb. y M. monophyllum (Benth.) Maréchal & Baudet. Macroptilium longepedunculatum (Mart. ex Benth.) Urb. y M. gracile (Poepp. ex Benth.) Urb., que algunos autores separan en el rango específico, corresponden a variedades extremas de una misma especie. Al tener prioridad el nombre M. gracile, M. longepedunculatum queda relegado a la sinonimia del primero.

Dando continuidade aos trabalhos realizados no Departamento de Genética da ESALQ/USP, referentes aos estudos de mapeamento de genes de resistência à bacteriose em maracujá-amarelo, foram realizados dois novos experimentos de inoculação envolvendo uma população obtida a partir do cruzamento entre ‘IAPAR-06’ e ‘IAPAR- 123’, ambos acessos pertencentes ao Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR). Essa população F1, composta de 160 indivíduos, foi utilizada para a construção dos mapas de ligação com base em marcadores AFLP, utilizando tanto marcas com segregação 1:1 quanto marcas bi-parentais 3:1, as quais serviram de ponte para a integração dos mapas construídos para cada genitor. Para a avaliação fenotípica, 104 indivíduos, além dos genitores, foram inoculados por dois isolados de Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. passiflorae, em dois experimentos distintos. Foi constatado que a resistência à bacteriose é poligênica e há, pelo menos, três locos quantitativos (QRL) envolvidos. Testes quanto à metodologia de mensuração das lesões foliares também foram realizados. Foi verificado que, independente da metodologia de avaliação fenotípica, os resultados foram equivalentes quanto ao mapeamento de QRL. De acordo com as diferentes datas de avaliação e/ou idades das folhas, QRL com diferentes efeitos foram detectados ou, até mesmo, QRL foram alocados em diferentes grupos de ligação. Os dados oriundos do presente estudo corroboram resultados obtidos em trabalho anterior envolvendo a mesma população de mapeamento. A utilização de um segundo isolado bacteriano possibilitou a detecção de um novo QRL. As limitações do uso de marcadores dominantes para fins de mapeamento de locos quantitativos são discutidas. / Continuing the studies carried out in the Genetics Department at ESALQ/USP concerning the mapping of resistance genes for the bacterial disease in yellow passion fruit, two new assays were conducted involving a population derived from a cross between ‘IAPAR-06’ and ‘IAPAR-123’, both accessions belonging to Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR). This F1 population, composed of 160 individuals, was used for constructing genetic maps based on AFLP markers, using both markers with segregation 1:1 and with biparental 3:1, which act as a bridge to integrate the maps constructed for each of the parents. For phenotypic evaluation, 104 individuals plus the parents were inoculated with two isolates of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. passiflorae in two different assays. It was seen that the resistance to bacterial disease is polygenic, and there are at least three quantitative loci (QRL) involved. Tests regarding methods for measuring leaf lesions were also carried out. It was seen that, irrespective of the methodology used for phenotypic evaluation, the results were identical for QRL mapping. Different evaluation times and/or leaf ages resulted in detection of QRL with different effects, and even QRL allocated on different linkage groups. Data derived from the present study corroborate results obtained previously involving the same mapping population. The use of a second bacterial isolate did allow a new QRL to be detected. The limitations of using of dominant markers for mapping quantitative loci are discussed.

Dando continuidade aos trabalhos realizados no Departamento de Genética da ESALQ/USP, referentes aos estudos de mapeamento de genes de resistência à bacteriose em maracujá-amarelo, foram realizados dois novos experimentos de inoculação envolvendo uma população obtida a partir do cruzamento entre ‘IAPAR-06’ e ‘IAPAR- 123’, ambos acessos pertencentes ao Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR). Essa população F1, composta de 160 indivíduos, foi utilizada para a construção dos mapas de ligação com base em marcadores AFLP, utilizando tanto marcas com segregação 1:1 quanto marcas bi-parentais 3:1, as quais serviram de ponte para a integração dos mapas construídos para cada genitor. Para a avaliação fenotípica, 104 indivíduos, além dos genitores, foram inoculados por dois isolados de Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. passiflorae, em dois experimentos distintos. Foi constatado que a resistência à bacteriose é poligênica e há, pelo menos, três locos quantitativos (QRL) envolvidos. Testes quanto à metodologia de mensuração das lesões foliares também foram realizados. Foi verificado que, independente da metodologia de avaliação fenotípica, os resultados foram equivalentes quanto ao mapeamento de QRL. De acordo com as diferentes datas de avaliação e/ou idades das folhas, QRL com diferentes efeitos foram detectados ou, até mesmo, QRL foram alocados em diferentes grupos de ligação. Os dados oriundos do presente estudo corroboram resultados obtidos em trabalho anterior envolvendo a mesma população de mapeamento. A utilização de um segundo isolado bacteriano possibilitou a detecção de um novo QRL. As limitações do uso de marcadores dominantes para fins de mapeamento de locos quantitativos são discutidas. / Continuing the studies carried out in the Genetics Department at ESALQ/USP concerning the mapping of resistance genes for the bacterial disease in yellow passion fruit, two new assays were conducted involving a population derived from a cross between ‘IAPAR-06’ and ‘IAPAR-123’, both accessions belonging to Instituto Agronômico do Paraná (IAPAR). This F1 population, composed of 160 individuals, was used for constructing genetic maps based on AFLP markers, using both markers with segregation 1:1 and with biparental 3:1, which act as a bridge to integrate the maps constructed for each of the parents. For phenotypic evaluation, 104 individuals plus the parents were inoculated with two isolates of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. passiflorae in two different assays. It was seen that the resistance to bacterial disease is polygenic, and there are at least three quantitative loci (QRL) involved. Tests regarding methods for measuring leaf lesions were also carried out. It was seen that, irrespective of the methodology used for phenotypic evaluation, the results were identical for QRL mapping. Different evaluation times and/or leaf ages resulted in detection of QRL with different effects, and even QRL allocated on different linkage groups. Data derived from the present study corroborate results obtained previously involving the same mapping population. The use of a second bacterial isolate did allow a new QRL to be detected. The limitations of using of dominant markers for mapping quantitative loci are discussed.

Wälder bedecken 31 % der Landflächen weltweit. Aufgrund ihrer hohen Anzahl an endemischen Arten und ihrem hohen Artenreichtum gehören tropische Regenwälder zu den Biodiversitätshotspots der Welt. Die Ausbreitung von landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen führte zu einer verstärkten Degradierung und Waldverlust in Indonesien, die zum heutigen Zeitpunkt global am höchsten ist. Hauptsächliche Ursachen für die Entwaldung des tropischen Regenwaldes in Indonesien sind Holznutzung, Rohstoffabbau und die Produktion von Kautschuk (Hevea brasiliensis) und Palmöl (Elaeis guineensis), daraus folgt eine jährliche Umwandlungsrate von 20 000 km2 von natürlichem Regenwald in genutzte Flächen. Die weltweiten Konsequenzen der Entwaldung können nur geschätzt werden. Lokale Folgen sind Habitatverlust, Fragmentierung und Degradierung von verbleibenden Wäldern. In den verbleibenden Waldfragmenten kommt es zu einer Reduzierung der Artendiversität und einer Veränderung der Artenkombination. Untersuchungen von einzelnen Arten über die Folgen von Habitatfragmentierung auf die genetische Diversität von Pflanzen, zeigen unterschiedliche Ergebnisse, die von den artspezifischen Lebenszyklusstrategien abhängen. Im Allgemeinen ist ein Verlust von genetischen Ressourcen durch genetische Drift und reduzierten Genfluss zu erwarten. Dies entsteht durch die verminderte Austauschkonnektivität der verbleibenden Waldareale und die reduzierte effektive Populationsgröße der dort vorkommenden Arten. Dies kann zu einer Veränderung der genetischen Populationsstruktur der fragmentierten Arten führten, was eine Erhöhung der Wahrscheinlichkeit des Aussterbens der Art zur Folge hat. Der Effekt von Habitat-Fragmentierung auf die genetische Struktur wurde bisher nur für einzelne Pflanzenarten und nicht für Pflanzengemeinschaften untersucht. Weiterhin wurden keine Studien über die Folgen von Landnutzungsveränderungen auf die genetische Diversität von Pflanzen durchgeführt. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Studie war die genetische Diversität von dominanten Pflanzenarten in vier verschiedener Systeme mit unterschiedlicher landwirtschaftlicher Intensität in Sumatra, Indonesien, zu untersuchen. Anonyme AFLP Marker wurden genutzt, um die genetische Diversität von zehn dominanten Pflanzenarten, mit jeweils zehn Individuen, in den folgenden vier Landnutzungssystemen abzuschätzen: altgewachsener tropischer Tieflandregenwald, Kautschuk-Dschungel, Kautschukplantage und Palmölplantage. Die vier Systeme mit jeweils vier Replikaten, wurden in zwei Regionen untersucht, dies ergab eine Gesamtprobenanzahl von 3200. Durch unterschiedliche Artenkompositionen, die durch unterschiedliche Eigenschaften charakterisiert sind, wurde ein Abfall von genetischer Diversität von Wald zu Kautschuk-Dschungel zu Kautschukplantage zu Palmölplantage erwartet. Bei den Analysen wurden zwei Ansätze verwendet, bei dem Ersten wurde jeder Plot als eine Pflanzengemeinschaft betrachtet und bei dem Zweiten einzelne, häufig dominierende, Arten analysiert. Für die Gemeinschaftsanalyse wurden wiederum zwei Ansätze durchgeführt: Erstens der Fragmentpool-Ansatz, bei dem alle AFLP Fragmente der dominanten Arten in einem Fragment-Pool kombiniert wurden und deren genetische Differenzierung berechnet wurden. Zweitens der Artenansatz, bei dem die genetische Diversität pro Art im jeweiligen Plot berechnet wurde. Um die Landnutzungssystem auf genetische Unterschiede zu testen wurde ein „Mixed effect model“ für beide Ansätze der Gemeinschaftsanalyse benutzt. Außerdem wurde die genetische Diversität mit der Diversität von Pflanzenarten, Mykorrhizaarten und Prokaryotenarten korreliert, um die Reaktionsähnlichkeit der Parameter auf Landnutzungsveränderungen abzuschätzen. Die häufig dominanten Arten wurden hinsichtlich ihrer Populationsstruktur und der Populationsdifferenzierung innerhalb und zwischen den Landnutzungssystemen untersucht. Weiterhin wurden Arten nach ihrer Lebensform gruppiert und auf signifikante Unterschiede getestet. Ergebnisse der Gemeinschaftsanalyse mit dem Fragmentpool-Ansatz und dem Artenansatz zeigten keine direkte Korrelation zwischen genetischer Diversität dominanter Pflanzen und dem Landnutzungssystem. Aber aufgrund der Landnutzungsveränderung gibt es unterschiedliche Artenkompositionen im jeweiligen System, die mit ihren unterschiedlichen Eigenschaften, unterschiedliche Diversitäts- und Differenzierungsmuster aufweisen. Die Landnutzungssystem konnten in zwei Gruppen eingeteilt werden, die Baumdominierten Systeme mit hoher genetischer Diversität und die zwei Plantagensysteme mit niedriger genetischer Diversität. Die Analysen basierend auf den einzelnen häufigen Arten zeigen eine hohe Variabilität in der Artenreaktion auf die Landnutzungsveränderungen. Waldarten weisen unterschiedliche Verlustgrade von genetischer Diversität auf. Plantagen werden hauptsächlich von invasiven, kolonisierenden Arten dominiert, die an Störungen adaptiert sind. Daher zeigten die Plantagenplots im Mittel höhere genetische Diversitätslevel als erwartet.

Thesis (PhD (Genetics. Plant Biotechnology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The young internodes of sugarcane are ideal targets for altering metabolism, through genetic manipulation, to potentially control known fungal diseases such as Smut or to increase sucrose yields in these regions that are currently being discarded. At present, no regulatory sequences that specifically drive transgene expression in young developing sugarcane tissues are available. The objective of this study was therefore to isolate and evaluate such a sequence. The promoter targeted for isolation in this study regulates the expression of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.22), an enzyme which catalyses the oxidation of UDP-glucose to UDP-glucuronic acid, a precursor for structural polysaccharides which are incorporated into the developing cell wall. A strong correlation between the expression of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase and a demand for structural polysaccharides in developing tissues could therefore be expected. The first part of this study addressed the general practicality of promoter isolation from sugarcane, a complex polyploid. A gene encoding UDP-glucose dehydrogenase was isolated from a sugarcane genomic library. The gene contains an open reading frame (ORF) of 1443 bp, encoding 480 amino acids and one large intron (973 bp), located in the 5’-UTR. The derived amino acid sequence showed 88 – 98% identity with UDP-glucose dehydrogenase from other plant species, and contained highly conserved amino acid motifs required for cofactor binding and catalytic activity. Southern blot analysis indicates a low copy number for UDP-glucose dehydrogenase in sugarcane. The possible expression of multiple gene copies or alleles of this gene was investigated through comparison of sequences amplified from cDNA prepared from different tissues. Although five Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNP) and one small-scale insertion/deletion (INDEL) were identified in the aligned sequences, hundred percent identity of the derived amino acid sequences suggested the expression of different alleles of the same gene rather than expression of multiple copies. The finding that multiple alleles are expressed to provide the required level of a specific enzyme, rather than the increased expression of one dominant allele, is encouraging for sugarcane gene and promoter isolation. In the second part of the study the suitability of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase as a target for the isolation of a developmentally regulated promoter was investigated. The contribution of UDP glucose dehydrogenase to pentan synthesis, as well as the expression pattern and subcellular localisation of the enzyme in mature sugarcane plants was studied at the tissue and cellular level. Radiolabelling with positionally labelled glucose was used to investigate the relative contributions of glycolysis, the oxidative pentose phosphate pathway and pentan synthesis to glucose catabolism. Significantly (P=0.05) more radiolabel was released as CO2 from [6-14C]- glucose than [1-14C]-glucose in younger internodes 3, 4 and 5, demonstrating a significant contribution of UDP-glucose dehydrogenase to glucose oxidation in the younger internodes. In addition, there was significantly (P=0.05) more radiolabel in the cell wall (fiber) component when the tissue was labelled with [1-14C]-glucose rather than [6-14C]-glucose. This also demonstrates a selective decarboxylation of glucose in position 6 prior to incorporation into the cell wall and is consistent with a major role for UDP-glucose dehydrogenase in cell wall synthesis in the younger internodes. Expression analysis showed high levels of expression of both the UDP-glucose dehydrogenase transcript and protein in the leafroll, roots and young internodes. In situ hybridisation showed that the UDP-glucose dehydrogenase transcript is present in virtually all cell types in the sugarcane internode, while immunolocalisation showed that the abundance of the protein declined in all cell types as maturity increased. Results obtained confirmed that this enzyme plays an important role in the provision of hemicellulose precursors in most developing tissues of the sugarcane plant, indicating that UDP-glucose dehydrogenase was indeed a suitable target for promoter isolation. Lastly, the promoter region and first intron, located in the 5’-untranslated region (UTR) of this gene, were isolated and subsequently fused to the GUS reporter gene for transient expression analysis and plant transformation. Transient expression analysis showed that the presence of the intron was essential for strong GUS expression. Analysis of stably transformed transgenic sugarcane plants, evaluated in a green house trial, showed that the isolated promoter is able to drive GUS expression in a tissue specific manner under these conditions.

Os marcadores microssatélites por serem de natureza codominante e multialélica tornam-se ideais para a caracterização, mapeamento e seleção assistida. Os locos microssatélites disponíveis têm sido utilizados efetivamente na caracterização de acessos de bananeira (Musa), porém muitos deles têm se mostrado com baixa eficiência de amplificação. Neste sentido, os objetivos deste trabalho foram: desenvolver novos locos de microssatélites, caracterizar 224 acessos de bananeira do banco de germoplasma da Embrapa em relação à ploidia e constituição genômica empregando abordagens moleculares e estabelecer relações genéticas entre eles. Foram desenvolvidos 50 novos locos de microssatélites dos quais 44 foram polimórficos entre os acessos analisados. Para a caracterização da ploidia dos acessos foi utilizado a citometria de fluxo, e para a definição da composição genômica foram empregados polimorfismo nos genes ribossomiais nucleares (rDNA) e 16 locos microssatélites, que também serviram para estabelecer as relações genéticas entre os acessos. Além disso, foram sequenciados regiões do rDNA de 17 acessos de bananeira para identificação de polimorfismo de base única (SNP) associados ao genoma A e B. A constituição genômica e/ou ploidia determinada por abordagens moleculares confirmou a classificação previamente estabelecida por descritores morfológicos, com exceção dos acessos Marmelo, Pitogo e Pisang Nangka. As regiões do rDNA sequenciadas permitiram identificar 17 SNPs específicos para M. balbisiana, que poderão ser utilizados para classificar acessos quanto a constituição genômica. A análise de agrupamento derivada da genotipagem dos acessos com 16 locos de microssatélites subdividiu os genótipos de acordo com a ploidia, constituição genômica e subgrupos de bananeira, enquanto que a abordagem empregando o modelo bayesiano corroborou de forma geral com essa categorização. Foi detectada uma ampla heterogeneidade nos acessos diplóides, onde poucos acessos triplóides tiveram sua ancestralidade definida nos grupos dos acessos diplóides. / Microsatellite markers are co-dominant and multiallelic, and the method of choice for genetic characterization, mapping, and assisted selection breeeding. Microsatellite loci have been effectively used to characterize banana (Musa) accessions, but in some cases they have shown low amplification efficiency. Thus, the objectives of this work were to develop new microsatellite loci; to characterize 224 accessions from the Embrapa germplasm collection of banana for ploidy and genomic constitution, as well as to establish genetic relationships among the accessions. Fifty new microsatellite loci were developed, from which 44 were polimorphic. Flow citometry was employed to characterize ploidy, while genomic constitution was determined by polymorphism at the nuclear ribosomal gene (rDNA) and 16 microsatellite loci, also used to establish the genetic relationship among the accessions. Additionally, rDNA regions were sequenced from 17 banana accessions to identify specific single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) associated with the A or B genome. The genomic constitution and/or ploidy determined by various molecular approaches confirmed the previous classification established by morphological descriptors, except for Marmelo, Pitogo and Pisang Nangka. The sequenced rDNA regions allowed to identify 17 SNPs specific for M. balbisiana, which could be used to classify accessions according to genomic composition. Clustering analysis derived from accession genotyping using 16 microsatellite loci subdivided genotypes according to ploidy, genomic composition and banana subgroups, while the approach using a Bayesian model corroborated in general terms this categorization. A large heterogeneity of the diploid accessions was detected, which restrict the definition of ancestrality of triploid accessions in the diploid accession groups.

Em todo o mundo, a cultura da banana tem enfrentado uma série de problemas relacionados a ocorrência de doenças e pragas, para as quais, a obtenção de cultivares resistentes é a forma mais viável de controle. Híbridos tetraplóides promissores, obtidos a partir do cruzamento de cultivares triplóides com diplóides cultivados, selvagens ou melhorados, têm sido produzidos pelos diferentes programas de melhoramento. No entanto, o sucesso num programa de melhoramento depende inicialmente do completo conhecimento da diversidade genética do germoplasma disponível. Os marcadores microssatélites constituem-se em ferramentas valiosas para este fim. Este trabalho objetivou caracterizar, por marcadores microssatélites, 84 genótipos de Musa, a partir do estabelecimento de uma metodologia de detecção do polimorfismo em géis de seqüenciamento, por meio da coloração com prata. Os genótipos foram analisados em dois experimentos distintos. No primeiro experimento, as relações genéticas existentes entre 35 genótipos, compreendendo cultivares triplóides, raças locais (landraces) e híbridos tetraplóides foram investigadas empregando-se 11 primers SSRs. A análise fenética obtida mostrou concordância com a caracterização baseada em descritores morfológicos. Os genótipos agruparam-se com base na composição genômica, grupo genômico e subgrupo. Alguns híbridos tetraplóides apresentaram distorções na proporção de alelos doados pelo genitor feminino triplóide, o que suporta constatações recentes sobre a ocorrência de recombinação durante a formação dos gametas femininos. No segundo experimento, nove primers SSRs foram empregados na caracterização de 49 genótipos diplóides, divididos em três 'subgrupos' (cultivados, selvagens e melhorados) e na determinação das relações genéticas existentes entre estes materiais e nove cultivares comerciais triplóides. A análise fenética conduzida sobre todos os genótipos, não evidenciou uma perfeita separação dos genótipos diplóides em seus respectivos subgrupos, possivelmente devido a existência de muitos alelos comuns a eles. A estatística Rst confirmou este resultado. Alguns genótipos diplóides exibiram uma forte relação com as cultivares triplóides AAA tipo exportação. Os marcadores microssatélites mostraram-se altamente eficientes na caracterização e discriminação do germoplasma de Musa, gerando fingerprinting únicos para um grande número de genótipos. Um grande número de alelos pôde ser detectado, o que comprovou a natureza multialélica deste tipo de marcador. Os genótipos diplóides foram os que apresentaram a maior diversidade, refletida pelo maior número de alelos detectados e pela baixa similaridade entre os clones. Nos dois experimentos, observou-se uma alta proporção de alelos "multiplex", bem como locos duplicados, o que resultou na perda do caráter codominante dos marcadores SSRs. As implicações decorrentes destas observações foram consideradas. A metodologia de coloração com prata apresentada mostrou ser um procedimento eficiente, rápido, simples e de baixo custo na detecção do polimorfismo SSRs. / The banana (Musa) industry has faced various disease and pest problems all over the world, and the development of resistant cultivars is the most attractive way of control. Promising tetraploid hybrids, derived from crosses between triploid cultivars and wild, cultivated or selected diploids, have been developed from different breeding programs. However, the success in a breeding program depends on the knowledge about the genetic diversity of the available germplasm. Microsattelite is an important tool for estimating the genetic diversity. This work aimed to characterize 84 Musa genotypes using microsattelite markers, based on a method for polymorphism detection with electrophoresis on sequencing gel stained with silver nitrate. The genotypes were analyzed in two experiments. In the first one, the genetic relationships between 35 genotypes, including triploid cultivars, landraces and tetraploid hybrids, were investigated using 11 microsattelite primers. The phenetic analysis disclosed a grouping in agreement with the characterization based on morphological descriptors. The genotypes clustered according to genomic composition, genomic group and subgroup. Some tetraploid hybrids presented distortion of the proportion of alleles donated by the female triploid genitor, in support to recent description about the occurrence of recombination during female gamete formation. In the second experiment, 9 microsattelite primers were used to characterize 49 diploid genotypes, divided into three subgroups (cultivated, wild and selected) and to determine the genetic relationships between these genotypes and 9 commercial triploid cultivars. The phenetic analysis of all the genotypes did not demonstrate a separation of the diploid genotypes into the respective subgroups, possibly because of the occurrence of various alleles in common The statistic Rst confirmed this result. Some diploid genotypes showed a strong relationship with export-type triploid AAA cultivars. Microsattelite markers were shown to be highly efficient for Musa germplasm characterization and discrimination, generating unique fingerprinting for a large number of genotypes. A large number of alleles was detected, demonstrating the multi-allelic nature of this marker. The diploid genotypes presented the largest diversity, reflected by the largest number of detected alleles and by the low similarity between clones. In both experiments, a large proportion of multiplex alleles was, as well as duplicated loci, resulting in the loss of the codominant character of the marker. The resulting implications were considered. The methods of silver staining showed to be a quick, simple, efficient, and low-cost procedure to detect SSR polymorphism.

Diversos estudos afirmam ser bastante restrita a base genética da soja cultivada, o que gera problemas como falta de variabilidade, fragilidade das cultivares e alcance de um limite de produtividade. O desafio é selecionar dentre o germoplasma quais acessos utilizar em um programa de melhoramento. Este trabalho objetivou analisar a diversidade genética de 79 acessos de soja de diferentes regiões do mundo. Para tanto, foram utilizados marcadores microssatélites genômicos, funcionais e caracteres agromorfológicos. Vinte caracteres agromorfológicos foram avaliados em campo e submetidos a análises multivariadas para a estimação da diversidade genética. A dissimilaridade genética entre os acessos foi calculada pela distância generalizada de Mahalanobis, utilizando-se, a seguir, o algoritmo de otimização de Tocher para o agrupamento dos acessos. A análise de agrupamento resultou em 16 grupos, com cinco deles contendo um só acesso. PIs de mesma origem geográfica foram alocadas no mesmo grupo, com exceções. A primeira variável canônica absorveu 76,99% da variação observada, sendo as características com maior contribuição número de dias para a maturidade e início da granação. A segunda variável canônica absorveu 13,66% e os caracteres de maior peso foram massa de cem sementes e altura de inserção da primeira vagem. A terceira variável canônica absorveu 2,80% da variação, e as características de maior peso foram produtividade de grãos e número de vagens por planta. Isto demonstra que os caracteres ciclo, início da granação e massa de cem sementes são indicados para a análise da diversidade genética em acessos de soja. Todos os 30 locos analisados na genotipagem dos acessos foram polimórficos, sendo encontrados 259 alelos. O número de alelos por loco variou de 2 a 21, com uma média de 8,63. Os acessos analisados possuem uma quantidade bastante significativa de alelos raros, sendo os genótipos 19, 35, 63 e 65 os que apresentaram maior número de alelos exclusivos. A heterozigosidade esperada teve seu maior valor no loco Sat_001 (0,935) e seu menor valor no loco PHYA1 (0,182). A heterozigozidade observada variou de zero a 0,130 (loco Satt308 e loco Satt102, respectivamente). Os acessos 75 e 79, PI 281911 e PI 281907, respectivamente, são os mais similares (0,189) e os acessos 31 (PI 212606 ) e 35 (PI 229358), assim como o 40 (PI 265497) e 78 (438503A) são os mais distintos (0,965). Os dendrogramas oriundos de dados de SSRs, EST-SSRs e caracteres agromorfológicos resultaram em diferenças nos agrupamentos, sendo encontrada baixa correlação por testes de Mantel, mostrando que cada tipo de abordagem acessa diferentemente a variabilidade existente em germoplasma de soja. / Many studies have shown that cultivated soybean has a very narrow genetic basis, which generates some problems such as lack of genetic variability, cultivars vulnerability and achievement of a productivity plateau. The challenge is to select within the germplasm which accessions to use in a breeding program. This study aimed to analyze the genetic diversity of 79 soybean accessions from different regions of the world. For this purpose, genomic and functional microsatellites markers, as well as agromorphological traits, were used. Twenty agromorphological traits were evaluated in field and submitted to the multivariate analyses. The genetic dissimilarity between the accessions was calculated by the generalized distance of Mahalanobis, followed by Tochers algorithm optimization for the grouping of the accessions. The grouping analysis resulted in 16 groups, with five of them containing only one accession. PIs of same geographic origin were placed in the same group, with exceptions. The first canonic variable absorbed 76.99% of the observed variation, being the characteristics with greater contribution number of days to maturity and beginning of grain filling. The second canonic variable absorbed 13.66% and the characters of heavier weight had been mass of one hundred seeds and height of insertion of the first string bean. The third canonic variable absorbed 2.80% of the variation, and the characteristics of heavier weight had been grain productivity and number of string beans per plant. This demonstrates that the characters cycle, beginning of the grain filling and mass of one hundred seeds are indicated for the analysis of the genetic diversity in soybean accessions. All the 30 locus analyzed in the genotyping of the accessions were polymorphic, containing 259 alleles. The number of alleles per locus varied from 2 to 21, with a average of 8,63. The analyzed accessions possess a significant amount of rare alleles, being genotypes 19, 35, 63 and 65 the ones that had presented greater numbers of exclusive alleles. The expected heterozygosity had its highest value in Sat_001 (0,935) and its lowest value in PHYA1 (0,182). The observed heterozygosity varied from zero to 0,130 (Satt308 and Satt102, respectively). Accessions 75 and 79, PI 281911 and PI 281907, respectively, are the most similar (0,189) and accessions 31 (PI 212606) and 35 (PI 229358), as well as accessions 40 (PI 265497) and 78 (438503A) are the most distinct ones (0,9921). The deriving dendrograms from SSRs data, EST-SSRs and agromorphological traits resulted in differences in the groupings, being found low correlation for Mantel tests, showing that each type of approach accesses differently the existing variability in soybean germplasm.