This research examines the function of culture and power in Development praxis, as defined by Post-Development theory, the Participation approach to Development, and Development workers in Cambodia and the Philippines. Practitioner perspectives have been gathered by means of informal interviews conducted in Cambodia and the Philippines. The primary inquiry of this thesis is whether Development is culturally destructive, whether the current paradigm can deliver effective results, and what effect power relations have on these outcomes. The research approaches Development as a contact zone, in which Southern Development workers function as border crossers, moving between the cultures of funders and local communities as they work to implement Development projects and programs. This affords practitioners privileged insight into the cultural negotiations of this contact, making their input critical to this inquiry. Their input is placed in the context of Post-Development theorists� assertion that Development is a culturally destructive discourse, and the proposal by other theorists that a participatory approach to Development adequately addresses Post-Development�s key concerns. Participation addresses issues of power and context in Development practice from a different perspective from the Post-Development theorists, and outlines a series of strategies designed to overcome well-recognised limitations of Development practice. Practitioner responses are grouped into three discussions, addressing their overall perspective on Development and Participation, their attitudes to cultural change and Development�s role within that, and their experience of power in Development funding relationships. Their responses were overwhelmingly supportive of participatory approaches to Development, and advocated a stronger role for the grassroots organisations that are pivotal to the Post-Development approach. Different attitudes to cultural change were expressed by practitioners in the two countries, however they consistently named Development as a source of positive cultural change, naming this as a key aim of their work. Finally, practitioners were critical of their relationships with funding organisations, which they felt were unduly controlled by the funders. This research concludes that participatory Development fosters cultural liberty by reinforcing collaborative cultural traits and strengthening communities to make choices about culture. While Post-Development provides important critiques of Development, its proposed alternative of turning to the grassroots is not supported by practitioners, who seek ongoing relationships with Northern organisations and individuals. In particular, practitioners desire a model of funding relationship that reflects their own practice, by conforming to the paradigm of people that underpins the participatory approach to Development. This thesis contributes to Development debates by presenting Southern perspectives that contrast with Post-Development, and by proposing a framework that can underpin further development of funding partnerships. Furthermore, it demonstrates that practitioners believe that Development is a reinforcing factor at a time when cultures are exposed to increasingly diverse cultural influences.

O desenvolvimento, como qualquer noção construída pela sociedade, carrega em si aspectos próprios de cada período histórico. Desde seu aparecimento, este conceito se caracteriza por um conjunto de ações que visa implantar determinado modo de vida em localidades específicas. Em meados dos anos 1940, a ideia de que países ricos deveriam prestar auxílio a países pobres, no sentido de incrementar sua produção industrial e níveis econômicos, proporcionando-lhes um estilo de vida semelhante ao seu, começou a ser difundida globalmente. Com o passar do tempo, porém, muitas premissas destas intervenções passaram a ser questionadas, principalmente no que tange ao incentivo de exploração do meio ambiente para fins industriais, pela negligencia a aspectos sociais e culturais próprios a diferentes povos e pela supremacia concedida a categorias estritamente econômicas. A partir de então, concepções como desenvolvimento sustentável, etnodesenvolvimento, desenvolvimento local, entre outras, começaram a surgir, no intuito de adaptar as ações a novas demandas sociais. É neste contexto que surge a abordagem de cunho territorial que, principalmente a partir de 2003, começa a marcar presença significativa na elaboração de políticas públicas brasileiras, notadamente no que se refere à busca pela erradicação da pobreza e ao desenvolvimento rural. A criação da Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Territorial no âmbito do Ministério do Desenvolvimento Agrário constituiu-se, assim, como um marco que inaugurou uma nova forma de conceber as intervenções estatais. Esta instância é responsável pelas ações do Programa de Desenvolvimento Sustentável de Territórios Rurais, caracterizado por uma série de projetos inovadores, no sentido de que procuram abarcar populações antes negligenciadas pelo Estado, como as comunidades quilombolas. Partindo do pressuposto de que mesmo as abordagens mais recentes do desenvolvimento buscam ancorar determinadas maneiras de viver, este trabalho objetivou comparar o conteúdo das iniciativas de desenvolvimento territorial rural com os modos de vida de três comunidades quilombolas situadas no território Zona Sul do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Com o amparo do uso do buen vivir/bem viver, conceito forjado por antropólogos juntamente com comunidades tradicionais andinas, procurou-se destacar as noções sociais mais caras aos grupos estudados e compará-las com as concepções que embasam as ações atualmente postas em prática pelas políticas de desenvolvimento territorial rural. Após três meses de vivências e experiências nos Quilombos, foi possível vislumbrar uma concepção de bem viver própria às comunidades, caracterizada por dimensões que não possuem o desenvolvimento como eixo explicativo norteador, o que pôde ser teoricamente abarcado pelo pós-desenvolvimento. A comparação entre esta forma particular de viver e o que vem sendo proposto pelas ações do desenvolvimento – ainda fortemente baseadas em aspectos produtivos e econômicos, apesar das inovações - mostrou-se permeada por contrastes. / The development, as any notion constructed by society, carries with it specific aspects of each historical period. Since its appearance, this concept is characterized by a set of actions that aims to deploy certain way of life in specific locations. In the mid-1940s, the idea that rich countries should provide aid to poor countries in order to increase its industrial production and economic levels, providing them with a particular lifestyle, began to be disseminated globally. Over time, however, many assumptions of these interventions became criticized, especially in regard to encouraging exploitation of the environment for industrial purposes, by neglecting social and cultural aspects of different people and to grant supremacy to strictly economic categories. Since then, concepts such as sustainable development, ethno-development, local development, among others, began to emerge in order to adapt the actions to new social demands. Is in this context that emerge the territorial approach that, especially from 2003, starts dialing significant presence in the development of Brazilian public policies, notably as regards the quest for poverty eradication and rural development. The creation of the Department of Territorial Development under the Ministry of Agrarian Development was constituted, as well, as a landmark that inaugurated a new way of conceiving social interventions. This instance is responsible for the actions of the Program for Sustainable Development of Rural Territories, characterized by a number of innovative projects, in the sense that cover people before neglected by the State, such as quilombolas communities. Assuming that even the most recent development approaches seek to anchor certain ways of living, this study aimed to compare the contents of rural territorial development initiatives with the lifestyles of three quilombolas communities located in the south zone of Rio Grande do Sul. With the support of the use of buen vivir / living well, wrought by anthropologists along with traditional Andean communities, the concept sought to highlight the most important social dimensions to the groups and compare them with the notions that underlie the actions currently implemented by the rural territorial development policies. After three months of experiences in the Quilombos, it was possible to discern a particular conception of the living well in the three groups, characterized by dimensions that don’t have development as a guiding explanatory axis, which could be spanned theoretically by the post-development. The comparison between this particular way of life and what has been proposed by the actions of development - still based on productive and economic aspects, despite innovations - proved to be permeated by contrasts.

O desenvolvimento, como qualquer noção construída pela sociedade, carrega em si aspectos próprios de cada período histórico. Desde seu aparecimento, este conceito se caracteriza por um conjunto de ações que visa implantar determinado modo de vida em localidades específicas. Em meados dos anos 1940, a ideia de que países ricos deveriam prestar auxílio a países pobres, no sentido de incrementar sua produção industrial e níveis econômicos, proporcionando-lhes um estilo de vida semelhante ao seu, começou a ser difundida globalmente. Com o passar do tempo, porém, muitas premissas destas intervenções passaram a ser questionadas, principalmente no que tange ao incentivo de exploração do meio ambiente para fins industriais, pela negligencia a aspectos sociais e culturais próprios a diferentes povos e pela supremacia concedida a categorias estritamente econômicas. A partir de então, concepções como desenvolvimento sustentável, etnodesenvolvimento, desenvolvimento local, entre outras, começaram a surgir, no intuito de adaptar as ações a novas demandas sociais. É neste contexto que surge a abordagem de cunho territorial que, principalmente a partir de 2003, começa a marcar presença significativa na elaboração de políticas públicas brasileiras, notadamente no que se refere à busca pela erradicação da pobreza e ao desenvolvimento rural. A criação da Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Territorial no âmbito do Ministério do Desenvolvimento Agrário constituiu-se, assim, como um marco que inaugurou uma nova forma de conceber as intervenções estatais. Esta instância é responsável pelas ações do Programa de Desenvolvimento Sustentável de Territórios Rurais, caracterizado por uma série de projetos inovadores, no sentido de que procuram abarcar populações antes negligenciadas pelo Estado, como as comunidades quilombolas. Partindo do pressuposto de que mesmo as abordagens mais recentes do desenvolvimento buscam ancorar determinadas maneiras de viver, este trabalho objetivou comparar o conteúdo das iniciativas de desenvolvimento territorial rural com os modos de vida de três comunidades quilombolas situadas no território Zona Sul do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Com o amparo do uso do buen vivir/bem viver, conceito forjado por antropólogos juntamente com comunidades tradicionais andinas, procurou-se destacar as noções sociais mais caras aos grupos estudados e compará-las com as concepções que embasam as ações atualmente postas em prática pelas políticas de desenvolvimento territorial rural. Após três meses de vivências e experiências nos Quilombos, foi possível vislumbrar uma concepção de bem viver própria às comunidades, caracterizada por dimensões que não possuem o desenvolvimento como eixo explicativo norteador, o que pôde ser teoricamente abarcado pelo pós-desenvolvimento. A comparação entre esta forma particular de viver e o que vem sendo proposto pelas ações do desenvolvimento – ainda fortemente baseadas em aspectos produtivos e econômicos, apesar das inovações - mostrou-se permeada por contrastes. / The development, as any notion constructed by society, carries with it specific aspects of each historical period. Since its appearance, this concept is characterized by a set of actions that aims to deploy certain way of life in specific locations. In the mid-1940s, the idea that rich countries should provide aid to poor countries in order to increase its industrial production and economic levels, providing them with a particular lifestyle, began to be disseminated globally. Over time, however, many assumptions of these interventions became criticized, especially in regard to encouraging exploitation of the environment for industrial purposes, by neglecting social and cultural aspects of different people and to grant supremacy to strictly economic categories. Since then, concepts such as sustainable development, ethno-development, local development, among others, began to emerge in order to adapt the actions to new social demands. Is in this context that emerge the territorial approach that, especially from 2003, starts dialing significant presence in the development of Brazilian public policies, notably as regards the quest for poverty eradication and rural development. The creation of the Department of Territorial Development under the Ministry of Agrarian Development was constituted, as well, as a landmark that inaugurated a new way of conceiving social interventions. This instance is responsible for the actions of the Program for Sustainable Development of Rural Territories, characterized by a number of innovative projects, in the sense that cover people before neglected by the State, such as quilombolas communities. Assuming that even the most recent development approaches seek to anchor certain ways of living, this study aimed to compare the contents of rural territorial development initiatives with the lifestyles of three quilombolas communities located in the south zone of Rio Grande do Sul. With the support of the use of buen vivir / living well, wrought by anthropologists along with traditional Andean communities, the concept sought to highlight the most important social dimensions to the groups and compare them with the notions that underlie the actions currently implemented by the rural territorial development policies. After three months of experiences in the Quilombos, it was possible to discern a particular conception of the living well in the three groups, characterized by dimensions that don’t have development as a guiding explanatory axis, which could be spanned theoretically by the post-development. The comparison between this particular way of life and what has been proposed by the actions of development - still based on productive and economic aspects, despite innovations - proved to be permeated by contrasts.

O desenvolvimento, como qualquer noção construída pela sociedade, carrega em si aspectos próprios de cada período histórico. Desde seu aparecimento, este conceito se caracteriza por um conjunto de ações que visa implantar determinado modo de vida em localidades específicas. Em meados dos anos 1940, a ideia de que países ricos deveriam prestar auxílio a países pobres, no sentido de incrementar sua produção industrial e níveis econômicos, proporcionando-lhes um estilo de vida semelhante ao seu, começou a ser difundida globalmente. Com o passar do tempo, porém, muitas premissas destas intervenções passaram a ser questionadas, principalmente no que tange ao incentivo de exploração do meio ambiente para fins industriais, pela negligencia a aspectos sociais e culturais próprios a diferentes povos e pela supremacia concedida a categorias estritamente econômicas. A partir de então, concepções como desenvolvimento sustentável, etnodesenvolvimento, desenvolvimento local, entre outras, começaram a surgir, no intuito de adaptar as ações a novas demandas sociais. É neste contexto que surge a abordagem de cunho territorial que, principalmente a partir de 2003, começa a marcar presença significativa na elaboração de políticas públicas brasileiras, notadamente no que se refere à busca pela erradicação da pobreza e ao desenvolvimento rural. A criação da Secretaria de Desenvolvimento Territorial no âmbito do Ministério do Desenvolvimento Agrário constituiu-se, assim, como um marco que inaugurou uma nova forma de conceber as intervenções estatais. Esta instância é responsável pelas ações do Programa de Desenvolvimento Sustentável de Territórios Rurais, caracterizado por uma série de projetos inovadores, no sentido de que procuram abarcar populações antes negligenciadas pelo Estado, como as comunidades quilombolas. Partindo do pressuposto de que mesmo as abordagens mais recentes do desenvolvimento buscam ancorar determinadas maneiras de viver, este trabalho objetivou comparar o conteúdo das iniciativas de desenvolvimento territorial rural com os modos de vida de três comunidades quilombolas situadas no território Zona Sul do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. Com o amparo do uso do buen vivir/bem viver, conceito forjado por antropólogos juntamente com comunidades tradicionais andinas, procurou-se destacar as noções sociais mais caras aos grupos estudados e compará-las com as concepções que embasam as ações atualmente postas em prática pelas políticas de desenvolvimento territorial rural. Após três meses de vivências e experiências nos Quilombos, foi possível vislumbrar uma concepção de bem viver própria às comunidades, caracterizada por dimensões que não possuem o desenvolvimento como eixo explicativo norteador, o que pôde ser teoricamente abarcado pelo pós-desenvolvimento. A comparação entre esta forma particular de viver e o que vem sendo proposto pelas ações do desenvolvimento – ainda fortemente baseadas em aspectos produtivos e econômicos, apesar das inovações - mostrou-se permeada por contrastes. / The development, as any notion constructed by society, carries with it specific aspects of each historical period. Since its appearance, this concept is characterized by a set of actions that aims to deploy certain way of life in specific locations. In the mid-1940s, the idea that rich countries should provide aid to poor countries in order to increase its industrial production and economic levels, providing them with a particular lifestyle, began to be disseminated globally. Over time, however, many assumptions of these interventions became criticized, especially in regard to encouraging exploitation of the environment for industrial purposes, by neglecting social and cultural aspects of different people and to grant supremacy to strictly economic categories. Since then, concepts such as sustainable development, ethno-development, local development, among others, began to emerge in order to adapt the actions to new social demands. Is in this context that emerge the territorial approach that, especially from 2003, starts dialing significant presence in the development of Brazilian public policies, notably as regards the quest for poverty eradication and rural development. The creation of the Department of Territorial Development under the Ministry of Agrarian Development was constituted, as well, as a landmark that inaugurated a new way of conceiving social interventions. This instance is responsible for the actions of the Program for Sustainable Development of Rural Territories, characterized by a number of innovative projects, in the sense that cover people before neglected by the State, such as quilombolas communities. Assuming that even the most recent development approaches seek to anchor certain ways of living, this study aimed to compare the contents of rural territorial development initiatives with the lifestyles of three quilombolas communities located in the south zone of Rio Grande do Sul. With the support of the use of buen vivir / living well, wrought by anthropologists along with traditional Andean communities, the concept sought to highlight the most important social dimensions to the groups and compare them with the notions that underlie the actions currently implemented by the rural territorial development policies. After three months of experiences in the Quilombos, it was possible to discern a particular conception of the living well in the three groups, characterized by dimensions that don’t have development as a guiding explanatory axis, which could be spanned theoretically by the post-development. The comparison between this particular way of life and what has been proposed by the actions of development - still based on productive and economic aspects, despite innovations - proved to be permeated by contrasts.

The current Finnish development policy, published in 2016, follows the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 sustainable development goals. With the help of a few tools from corpus linguistics, this study conducts a critical discourse analysis of the policy, using Norman Fairclough’s three-dimensional method for CDA as its methodologicalframework and post-development theory as its main theoretical background. The study focuses on the definitions of development and its implementation as put forward by the policy, and how the policy text relates to its production and consumption as well as to the social and political context in which it is situated. Rather than working toward cooperation and participation which it promises, the policy reinforces the image of top-down aid dictated by institutions of the global North. It juxtaposes Finland as a giver and saviour with countries in the global South as vulnerable receivers of aid, granting little agency for the institutions,let alone the people of its development partners.

Multi-country surveys indicate widespread pessimism about global progress and about the effectiveness of the international development sector, despite indicators showing significant advancement in most areas. These perceptions are especially noteworthy because they can influence the public’s opinion on other social issues such as multilateralism, migration, or poverty. This pessimism originates in part in the information about development that organizations working in that sector produce. Development communicators are both creators, as well as audiences, of this material, but empirical evidence on the impact their world views have on the content they create is limited. This thesis aims to address this gap.Findings were canvassed using a qualitative method in the form of in-depth interviews. Seven participants were selected for having a decision-making position within their organizations, along with a mix of nationalities, type of organization and work experience – headquarters and field. The approach for this research was informed by postdevelopment critique, which examines the power of the discourse of development in constructing ideas about people and development. This study concludes that development communicators are as pessimistic as the general public, although it remains unclear to what extent this pessimism impacts the messages and content they produce. A key finding is that communicators deny being influenced by their personal views, citing instead organizational rules and Communication objectives as their main influences when creating content. They also deny being influenced by the media, not recognizing their role as audience. In general, this study points to a lack of self-reflection and self-awareness among development communicators of their personal input and biases in their work, and the full impact of their output on their audiences’ perception of the world. This study also indicates that, while acknowledging the negative information about development that the general public is exposed to, communication experts mainly credit the media for this information, and don’t recognize how the development sector influences media content. The study also reveals that the communicators’ pessimism about the world is likely connected with a disillusionment with the sector and their work. Development communicators are key actors in the global development sector because of their role in constructing the way the sector is presented to the global public. This research directly contributes to understanding their role as mediators of global perceptions, a process with significant moral and political implications.

Agenda 2030 has reached its half-way mark, making it a highly relevant topic to examine. A critical discourse analysis (CDA) is applied through this research to identify the underlying norms and values of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 8 (decent work and economic growth) and 10 (reduced inequalities). The post-development theory provides five key concepts (economic growth, developed/developing countries, modernity and change and a lack of social, environmental and cultural aspects) that serve as the lens on which we view the SDGs. The analysis brings a new perspective to the limitations and challenges within Agenda 2030, while also identifying goal conflicts within and between the goals. The discourse within SDGs 8 and 10 shows traces of these five key concepts. Terms such as economic growth, developed and developing countries, innovation, modernity and change are mentioned throughout the respective targets. Other phenomena, although promised to be addressed, are being left out, such as cultural differences and non-economic forms of inequality. Further research indicated that the two goals came with dissimilarities and similarities, both within and between them. The similarities showed, although SDGs 8 and 10 are representing two different focuses, (economic and human rights) they shared almost identical underlying notions, namely the clear focus on economic development. These findings indicate a potential pitfall within Agenda 2030 in regards to their narrow and uncoordinated choice of making two goals with different intentions share the same objective. The dissimilarities became evident when some targets within SDG 8 promoted policies that would lead to less economic growth. The same can be said for SDG 10, as some policies would also contradict SDG 8’s aim. SDG 10 also contains certain targets that wrongfully use the term equality, contradicting the aim of the goal. Other similarities include certain contradictory statements between the targets in both goals.

Text in English / This research examines the applicability of the Kindernothilfe self-help group approach among the Ngäbe indigenous people in Panama from the perspectives of complex system theory and development as empowerment. It is based on an extensive literature review and an empirical qualitative study with focus group discussions and expert interviews following the grounded theory method. The dissertation displays the multiple dimensions that have reverberated to poverty and to the failure of development and most group approaches in the Ngäbe region. Nevertheless, it indicates that a culturally fitting self-help group concept could become a promising approach to empowering the Ngäbe people. Some crucial adaptations, however, are necessary. The most significant change regards the suggestion to work with mixed-sex ‘family groups’ that combine peer group meetings and joint gatherings. It represents the most suitable approach both from the perspective of the Ngäbe people and from the suitable approach both from the perspective of the Ngäbe people and from the viewpoint of gender mainstreaming and complexity. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

PH.D., Faculty of Humanities, University of the Witwatersrand, 2011 / Through a case study of the relationship between the rural Makuleke community and the regional tourism operator Wilderness Safaris, this thesis examines the impact of tourism partnerships on community development in post-­‐ apartheid South Africa. The study considers the tourism component of the ‘Makuleke model’, a concept used frequently in academic and popular literature to refer to the community’s landmark land restitution case involving the Kruger National Park (KNP). Thirty years after experiencing a forced removal by the apartheid regime, the Makuleke community in 1998 was able to regain their lost land (the Pafuri area of Kruger National Park) and benefit from it through conservation and tourism. The Makuleke have partnered with three tourism operators, their main concessionaire being Wilderness Safaris. Their contractual agreement obliges the tourism company to pay lease fees to the Makuleke Communal Property Association (CPA) and to employ Makuleke residents. To further community development, Wilderness Safaris established a joint venture with the Makuleke CPA, and also runs an environmental education programme for children. Evidence for this thesis was collected over a two and a half year period (from May 2007 to December 2009) using three methodological approaches: archival research, participant observation and semi-­‐structured, open-­‐ended interviews. In analysing the Makuleke CPA-­‐Wilderness Safaris partnership, findings reveal that ten years after the land claim, the commended ‘Makuleke model’ is neither as conceptually coherent nor as practically successful as is commonly supposed. I argue that although the model denotes success, a closer scrutiny of its foundations, assumptions and context expose inherent forces and practices that hinder its long-­‐ term effective implementation. Influenced by post-­‐development theory, I question perceptions of equality in benefit distribution, critique the juxtaposition of traditional with modern values, and examine contestations over power within the Makuleke community. I demonstrate how these features undermine the potential for the genuine transformation and broad-­‐based social upliftment that tourism-­‐led development purposes to achieve at Makuleke. My research findings confirm post-­‐development theoretical propositions that criticise the contradictions in orthodox development procedures and call for a rethinking of the premises upon which approaches to community upliftment through tourism are generally founded.

This thesis presents a case study of Sweden’s foreign relations with Mozambique. It has been conducted in a deductive way departing from Arturo Escobar’s post-development theory, and with qualitative textual and content analysis combined with a semi-structured interview as methods. The aim of the study has been to test post-development theory on a least likely case, i.e. a case least likely to prove the theory right. The question being posed is whether countries giving foreign aid are doing so with altruistic or egoistic motives, and the starting point for this case study is the supposition that Sweden might exhibit a degree of altruism in its foreign policy. Sweden has been chosen as an example of an odd man out-state in international perspective, in order to ascertain whether structuralist critiques of the Western establishment and its development practices hold true or not. The results of this study show a mixed picture, where certain criteria of Escobar’s theory are found even in this least likely case; however, they are not fulfilled to the maximum, and the study also shows deep flaws in Escobar’s theory. The thesis presents a scrutiny of the historical relations between Sweden and Mozambique and moves on to a reading of official documents from Swedish authorities. Escobar’s cynical view of the Western establishment as consisting exclusively of malicious plutocrats is challenged, acknowledged and questioned at the same time. The study teaches us that there are exceptions to the rule, and that it might be dangerous to be so categorical in one’s assessments.