The purpose of this thesis is to examine the circulation of photographic postcards depicting lynching events in the United States, as well as the changing contexts and gaze. The initial mailing of the postcards to far away family and friends, some including handwriting on the versos, makes apparent the desire to spread white supremacist ideals across the country. These photographs, often depicting the victim’s suffering body amongst a crowd of people, were then placed in family photo albums, hidden in attics, or sold in flea markets. It was in these locations that collector James Allen found the photographs depicting lynching events that compose the Allen/Littlefield Collection, which toured the United States from 2000-2005 in the exhibition "Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America." Through the utilization of the accompanying catalog, I discuss the circulation of multiple mailed photographic postcards with handwritten texts on the versos, the reporting of lynching events in newspapers from varying regions of the United States, and the recent exhibitions of the Allen/Littlefield Collection, as well as art works reappropriating lynching photographs. It is my aim to illustrate the impact of context on the viewing of lynching images and how the gaze of the spectator changes over time.

Postcards highlight the most invigorating, awesome and memorable aspects of events and places. They serve as mementos to be shared or as a testament to experience, proof that "I was here." While postcards were most widely used at the turn of the 20th century, they are quickly being outmoded by the immediacy of technology. Thanks to digital photography and the world wide web, sharing memories is something that happens almost as quickly as the original event is experienced. The history and function of postcards are not the topics that I will address in this essay. Rather, I will look at how geography and experience influence the formation of memories and illustrate how postcards, in highlighting the most mundane and forgettable aspects of place, can act as a mnemonic device. I will also touch on ideas of the simulacra to explore how the simulation of an event or object can be truer or at least more authentic than the original.

The project examines, and experiments with, how one can use historical fragments as a starting point for the design of a 7000 square meter large civic center, or house of arts and culture, in Beirut, as this is a place where the urban development has had a very different point of departure the last decades. The historical fragments in this case has been a collection of postcards of various public buildings that existed in the city between 1890 and 1970. Many times postcards are the main record of history of historical places, but this is not the main reason why I chose it as a study object. I chose it because of their purpose; to communicate a story of the place it portrays to outsiders, to people whose only knowledge about that place comes from the image on its front and the restricted number of words that can be squeezed into the small area on the back. Given my position as a foreigner working in a context that, although having visited multiple times, is unfamiliar to me, I found this an interesting starting point for the project.

La culture visuelle contemporaine ne peut pas être comprise sans avoir à l’esprit l’enjeu entre les conditions socio-économiques, les avancées technologiques et les opérations artistiques au cours des deux derniers siècles. C’est en considérant cet enjeu, qu’on s’interroge: Quels sont les rapports entre l'image technique, la parole et le réel? Quels sont les liens entre les différents dispositifs qui composent l’ensemble médiatique actuel? Comment peut-on décrire l'interaction entre les opérations de l’art, le commerce social des images et les valeurs fondatrices de l’institution esthétique (art / pas de l'art, haut / bas, auteur / récepteur, original / copie ...)? Ce questionnement prend une direction plus précise, par le biais de l’étude des images et des usages de la carte postale illustrée au cours des trois premières décennies du XXème siècle et des années 80, 90 et 2000. Concomitante à l'avènement de la photographie et à l’émergence d'un réseau postal de communication mondiale, la carte postale illustrée sera également analysée à partir d’une recollection de ses appropriations artistiques. Malgré l’étendue de l’archive scientifique dédiée à l'iconographie collective, notamment concernant des champs épistémologiques tels que la sociologie de l'imaginaire et les visual cultural studies, pour ne citer que deux exemples récents, il est à notre avis fort nécessaire de relire la théorie de l'image, tout en tenant compte des différents aspects du processus d’appareillement technique de l’image, qui s’ébauche au cours du siècle. XIX avec la photographie et le cinéma, et qui se poursuit aujourd'hui avec les réalités virtuelles et les ambiances numériques de la Web 2.0 ... La présente étude considère ce trajet à partir de deux notions fondamentales : l’idée de récréation et la conception de remédiation. L'image récréative traduit la reconnaissance de la nature paradoxale de l’image et de la technique : celles-ci seraient, d’une part, des entités douées d’”une sensibilité tirée à la manivelle” (Moisés Martins Lemos , 2011), qui se manifesterait sous les formes de l'aliénation et de l'automatisation ; d'autre part, l’image et la technique, une fois appropriées par des tactiques de réinvention, de recomposition et de réparation, deviendraient des instances favorables à l'expérience et à l'affirmation de notre condition historique. À son tour, la notion de remédiation, terminologie suggérée par Bolter et Grusin (2000), présuppose une affirmation de l’interdépendance des medias contemporains ; ceux-ci seraient un ensemble solidaire uni par des liens de collaboration non chronologiques, contraires au schéma séquentiel qui oppose les nouveaux aux vieux médias. Une culture traversée par la récréation et la remédiation est également, comme l’a constaté l’œuvre visionnaire de Walter Benjamin (1991, 1992), une culture où se troublent les frontières entre les statuts de l'auteur et du récepteur, de l’originel et de la copie, de l’high et du low, statuts normatifs artificiels destinés à légitimer le discours de l'institution esthétique. Absentes de notre traversée quotidienne et spontanée de la polymorphie des ambiances visuelles, les dichotomies mentionnées seraient l’objet de nombreuses dérisions artistiques, aujourd'hui paradoxalement assimilées par l’institution esthétique. La carte postale, autrefois protagoniste des grandes expositions universelles, et aujourd'hui omniprésente dans les espaces polyculturelles de l'art moderne et contemporain - dans leurs magasins, leurs salles d’exposition et leurs aires de loisir tels que les cafés, bars et restaurants -, revêt un intérêt particulier... / Understanding contemporary visual culture as a result of the game between socio-economic conditions, technological advances and artistic operations over the past two centuries, we ask ourselves: What are the relationships between image, word and the reality? What are the connections between different devices of the current media context? and the interaction between operations artistic, images’ social commerce and the founding values of the aesthetic institution (art / non art, high / low, author / viewer, original / copy ...)? This broad issue finds a more accurate direction in the analysis of images and uses of the postcard over the first three decades of the century XX and 80, 90 and 2000 and also in the recollection of this artistic media appropriation, inseparable from the advent of photography and installation of a network of world postal communication. We believe that, although the scientific archive about the collective iconography progressively becomes more extensive, particularly with the affirmation of epistemological fields ranging from sociology of the imaginary to the visual cultural studies, just to mention two recent examples, this does not make it unnecessary, on the contrary, it makes it urgent to persistently review the theory of the image, which takes into account different aspects of the same technologization process, started in the century XIX with photography and film, and which continues today with the realities of digital and virtual environments web 2.0 ... The review of this path is drawn in our study with the support of the notions of recreation and remediation. The recreational image corresponds to a paradoxical conception of image and technique as entities that would be, on the one hand, aimed at "a sensitivity pulled by the crank," retaking the expressive formula of Moisés de Lemos Martins (2011), through forms of alienation and automation and, on the other hand, the favourable to the exercise of experience and the affirmation of the historical condition, through reinvention, rearrangement and repair tactics. The notion of remediation, terminology suggested by Bolter & Grusin (2000), requires an understanding of the complex contemporary media as an interdependent whole, united by non-chronological relationships of collaboration and hybridization, which rupture with the linear sequential scheme that distinguishes new and old media. A culture crossed by recreation and remediation tactics is also, as the visionary thought of Walter Benjamin (1991, 1992) glimpsed, a culture where the boundaries between the positions of author and viewer, the status of original and copy and high and low have been weakened, artificial normative categories that were intended to legitimize the discourse of aesthetic institution, but which would remain absent within our daily and spontaneous route of polymorphic visual atmospheres and would be, moreover, object of the most heterogeneous artistic derisions, paradoxically today assimilated by that aesthetics institution. The picture postcard, once the protagonist of universal expositions, today ubiquitous in major policultural centres of modern and contemporary art - in its stores, in their classrooms and in their leisure spaces, such as coffee shops, bars and restaurants - fits our problem in a very particular way: object between art and commerce, with pictures and words, photography vehicle, close relative of cinema, the postal lends itself both to the exploration of a stereotypy of affects and it also offers to tricks, the tricks and the assemblies of its users....

Esta dissertação trata da trajetória e obra fotográfica de Theodor Preising no Brasil. O fotógrafo percorreu área considerável do território nacional tomando vistas para a produção de cartões-postais e registrando viagens de sócios do Touring Clube do Brasil. Trabalhou ainda para a revista S.Paulo, e integrou os quadros funcionais do Departamento de Imprensa e Propaganda de São Paulo, contribuindo com a elaboração de uma imagem do país nas publicações oficiais direcionadas para leitura no Brasil e no exterior. Entre essas publicações estavam: o jornal Brasil Novo, a revista Travel in Brazil, as reportagens da Agência Nacional e dois folhetos turísticos. Trata-se de um estudo que busca demonstrar a versatilidade de Preising e a extensão de sua obra. A análise do trabalho de Preising, entre 1923 e 1948, permite observamos a transformação de sua linguagem, que se sobrepõe e exemplifica a metamorfose da sociedade. / This dissertation discusses Theodor Preisings trajectory and photographic work at Brasil. The photographer has covered considerable area of national territory taking views to postcards and registering trips of Touring Clube do Brasil affiliations. He has still worked to S.Paulo magazine, and joined the staffs of Departamento de Imprensa e Propaganda de São Paulo, contributing to the development of the countrys image in the official publications in Brazil and overseas. Between these publications was: the Brasil Novo newspaper, the Travel in Brazil magazine, reports of the Agência Nacional and two touristic papers. This work proposes to demonstrate Preisings versatility and the extent of his work. By analyzing Preisings work, since 1923 to 1948, we can understand the transformation of his technique, witch exemplifies the metamorphosis of the society.

Esta dissertação trata da trajetória e obra fotográfica de Theodor Preising no Brasil. O fotógrafo percorreu área considerável do território nacional tomando vistas para a produção de cartões-postais e registrando viagens de sócios do Touring Clube do Brasil. Trabalhou ainda para a revista S.Paulo, e integrou os quadros funcionais do Departamento de Imprensa e Propaganda de São Paulo, contribuindo com a elaboração de uma imagem do país nas publicações oficiais direcionadas para leitura no Brasil e no exterior. Entre essas publicações estavam: o jornal Brasil Novo, a revista Travel in Brazil, as reportagens da Agência Nacional e dois folhetos turísticos. Trata-se de um estudo que busca demonstrar a versatilidade de Preising e a extensão de sua obra. A análise do trabalho de Preising, entre 1923 e 1948, permite observamos a transformação de sua linguagem, que se sobrepõe e exemplifica a metamorfose da sociedade. / This dissertation discusses Theodor Preisings trajectory and photographic work at Brasil. The photographer has covered considerable area of national territory taking views to postcards and registering trips of Touring Clube do Brasil affiliations. He has still worked to S.Paulo magazine, and joined the staffs of Departamento de Imprensa e Propaganda de São Paulo, contributing to the development of the countrys image in the official publications in Brazil and overseas. Between these publications was: the Brasil Novo newspaper, the Travel in Brazil magazine, reports of the Agência Nacional and two touristic papers. This work proposes to demonstrate Preisings versatility and the extent of his work. By analyzing Preisings work, since 1923 to 1948, we can understand the transformation of his technique, witch exemplifies the metamorphosis of the society.

Магистерская диссертация посвящена исследованию стрит-арт-открыток и уличному искусству в целом: рассмотрению американской и французской традиций, рассмотрению особенностей российского стрит-арта и его правового регулирования. Также работа включает в себя анализ современного состояния уличного искусства г. Екатеринбурга и классификацию стрит-арт-объектов города. Для разработки концепции издательского проекта стрит-арт-открыток был осуществлен анализ рос¬сийского книжного рынка в специфике публикаций об уличном искусстве и анализ открыток, посвященных стрит-арту, проведена оценка востре¬бованности продукта посредством сегментирования целевой аудитории и выведения «персонажей», а также рассмотрены структурно-содержательные и визуально-полиграфические особенности издания. Издательский продукт представляет собой набор открыток в количестве 12 штук формата А6, посвященный уличному искусству Екатеринбурга. / The master's thesis is devoted to the study of street art postcards and street art in general: consideration of the American and French traditions, consideration of the features of Russian street art and its legal regulation. The work also includes an analysis of the current state of street art in Yekaterinburg and classification of street art objects in the city. To develop the concept of a publishing project street art-cards performed analysis of the Russian book market in the specific publications about street art and analysis of postcards dedicated to street art, evaluated demand for the product by segmenting the target audience and removing "characters", and discusses the structural and visual features of the edition. The publishing product is a set of postcards in the amount of 12 pieces of A6 format, dedicated to the street art of Yekaterinburg.

Le photographe français Fernand Braun (1852-1948) quitte les ateliers alsaciens de son oncle Adolphe Braun (1812-1877) en 1878 pour s’’installer à Angoulême, en Charente. Profitant du marché porteur du portrait, le jeune entrepreneur prend une part active aux recherches sur le gélatino-bromure d’’argent, une technique qui ouvre l’ère de l’instantané en photographie. Rejoignant les élites républicaines au sein de la société de gymnastique de la ville, le jeune homme exprime son sentiment de revanche face à la Prusse victorieuse de 1870. Gymnaste accompli et influent, les sentiments patriotiques du personnage le conduisent alors à rejoindre la Ligue des patriotes en 1884. Fréquentant Royan dès 1893, Fernand Braun s’installe en Charente-Inférieure en 1895 pour relancer ses activités. Inséré au réseau des élites conduisant le projet balnéaire de la cité et l’œuvre républicaine d’’instruction de la jeunesse, il entame une carrière d’éditeur de cartes postales. Le photographe crée à partir de 1900, un catalogue de milliers de clichés baptisé la Grande Série et valorisant les paysages et la vie des Charentais. Connaissant un succès phénoménal, la carte postale s’impose comme le medium de prédilection du début du XXe siècle. Les publications de l’éditeur témoignent alors des mutations des paysages régionaux ainsi que des évolutions sociales sur lesquelles le photographe porte un regard d’homme concerné et engagé. Cependant, le dynamisme de la Grande Série ralentit au début des années 1910 et l’auteur cherche de nouveaux débouchés pour son imagerie de cartes postales.L’année 1913 marque une rupture dans sa politique éditoriale et davantage influencé par l’industrie touristique, le personnage renouvelle sa manière de mettre en image les territoires. La Grande Guerre remobilise l’éditeur dès 1914 et ce dernier s’attache alors à exposer les conséquences du conflit à ses contemporains. Néanmoins, ne produisant guère plus que des vues touristiques après 1918, la Grande Série s’arrête en 1920. / The French photographer Fernand Braun (1852-1948) leaves his uncle’s factories, Adolphe Braun’s, in Alsace, for Angouleme in Charente where he settles in 1878. Taking advantage of the successful vogue for portraits, the young business man takes an active part in the researches into gelatine silver process, a revolutionary technique witch was to open a new era for modern photography : the snapshot. When he joined the gymnastic circle, and with it,the republican elite of the place, it was highly significant of his desire for revenge on the victorious Prussia of 1870.He’s not only a brilliant and influent gymnast but also a passionate patriot, when in 1884, he joins the Patriot’s league. From 1893 he often stays in Royan, and in 1895 he definitively settles there, in Inferior-Charente, to give a new start to his activities. Closely connected to the network of the local elite interested in the two main projects for the town : the development of Royan into a great seaside resort and the republican achievement of education of the youth, he starts, then, a career as a postcard publisher. From the year 1900, Fernand Braun produces his Great Collection, a catalogue containing thousands of pictures that shows the landscapes of the Charentes and the dailylife of its inhabitants. Being a prodigious success, the postcard reveals to be the first rank medium at the beginning of 20th century. The publisher’s productions bear witness of the environmental and social changes of the region on which Fernand Braun has a very attentive look. However, in the early 1910’s, the dynamism of the Great Collection slows down and its author looks for new openings in the issue of his pictures. By the year 1913, there is a break in his editorial policy and being more influenced by the tourism industry, the man imagines a new way of picturing the surrounding territories. As soon as the Great War breaks out, in 1914, the publisher finds a new motivation,eager to show his contemporaries its consequences. Nevertheless, by 1918, scarcely producing anything else but touristic views, the Great Collection comes to an end in 1920.

Summary This thesis uses poststructural theory to question how language shapes educational policy and practice. It starts from the premise that the tendency for categorising knowledge as binary opposites, whilst potentially useful, also encourages polarisation, is reductive, and produces closure. Thus, by interrogating the ‘/’ [slash], the boundary between the pairs, the intention is to produce a different, more equable, productive, and openly uncertain way of questioning unresolved educational dilemmas, hence the search for a question. Educational inclusion/exclusion foregrounds this research. It did not start out this way. As a scientist, a zoologist by training, and steeped in the rigidity of scientific method, the original study concerned proving a hypothesis, using questionnaires to collect the data and followed by some sort of statistical analysis. However, this approach did not acknowledge the complexity, nuances and shades of meaning within the language of inclusive education that I wished to explore. Poststructural theory offered a different strategy and interrupted my positivist thinking throughout. Thus, a Foucauldian approach has been used to interrogate the inclusion/exclusion binary in the literature. Searching for the historical a priori is followed by an interrogation of the different discourses and the power relations therein. An empirical analysis succeeds the textual analysis, for which data was collected in the form of interviews. Called participatory interactions, secondary teacher educator colleagues were asked to talk about inclusion, and activatory phrases were used to stimulate discussion. Poststructural interruptions about ethics suggested an innovative method of discourse analysis developed using Derrida’s metaphor of a postcard, in which he enacts the performative stance of deconstruction. Aspects of the data that troubled the inclusion/exclusion binary are presented as verse alongside a reflexive response that stimulates theoretical discussions called ‘new lines of flight’. On the reverse side of every postcard is a photograph, a graphic representation of some feature pertaining to the data selected, and the stamp is a picture of the philosopher whose work inspired the theorisation. Interrogating the ‘/’ [slash] reveals the complex interplay of each side of the binary and surfaces a system of ethics regarding legitimation. The final chapter, therefore, proposes a deliberate ethical interruption – an interruption of practice in order to interrupt practice. Professional practice should be deliberately interrupted by research in order to interrupt oppositional binary thinking. This research should have a deliberately ethical component foregrounding personal values and attitudes. As a consequence, inclusive education could be reconceptualised. The current discourse of a failing educational experiment might then be transformed into an ethical project worth going on with.