Aspiration of gastric content and delayed or failed intubation are the leading causes of anesthesia-related mortality and morbidity. In the recovery period, airway obstruction with subsequent hypoxia is a relatively common cause of morbidity, and is highly associated to the amount of opioids administered, especially in obese patients. The overall aim of this thesis was to study these risk factors for airway complications and postoperative hypoxia in obese patients, and to evaluate possible strategies for their prevention. In Study I, intubation times and incidence of failed intubation in obese patients were compared between direct laryngoscopy and videolaryngoscopy with the Stortz® C-MAC™. In Studies II and III, the effect of esmolol vs. remifentanil on the esophageal junction, and the possible analgesic properties of low-dose esmolol vs. placebo were evaluated using high-resolution manometry and the cold pressor test, respectively. Finally, in Study IV, the possible opioid-sparing effect of esmolol after laparoscopic gastric bypass surgery was evaluated. The use of videlaryngoscopy did not shorten intubation times, however appeared to reduce the incidence of failed intubation. Our results also show that esmolol has a favorable profile, compared to remifentanil, with regard to the protection against passive regurgitation and aspiration of gastric content. No analgesic effect of low-dose esmolol was however demonstrated. The intraoperative administration of esmolol instead of remifentanil also did not reduce the requirement of morphine for treatment of post-operative pain. The use of Stortz® C-MAC™ may be recommended for intubation of obese patients. Further studies are however required to clarify the possible role of esmolol in anesthesia.

Alla kirurgiska ingrepp, oavsett omfattning, orsakar vävnadsskada med efterföljande smärta. Obehandlad eller otillräckligt behandlad smärta kan leda till postoperativa komplikationer såväl fysiologiska som psykologiska. Farmakologisk behandling och framförallt behandling med opioider är ofta förknippat med biverkningar. Ett komplement till farmakologisk smärtbehandling kan vara icke-farmakologisk behandling såsom exempelvis musik. Musik är en gammal social företeelse som har visat sig ha positiv effekt på oro, stress och smärta. Studiens syfte var att undersöka musikens effekter på postoperativ smärta. Studien genomfördes som en litteraturstudie och resultatet baseras på femton vetenskapliga och peer-reviewed artiklar. Resultatet visade på att majoriteten av de patienter som genomgick ett kirurgiskt ingrepp och fick musikintervention skattade sin smärta lägre än de patienter som inte fick det. Musikintervention är en enkel, riskfri och kostnadseffektiv metod som kan ses som ett komplement till farmakologisk behandling av postoperativ smärta. / All surgical procedures, whatever the extent, cause tissue damage with subsequent pain. Untreated or inadequately treated pain can lead to both physiological and psychological postoperative complications. Pharmacological treatment and especially opioid treatment is often associated with side effects. A complement to pharmacological may be non-pharmacological pain management such as music. Music is an old social phenomenon which has shown to have a positive effect on anxiety, stress and pain. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of music on postoperative pain. The study was conducted as a literature study and the result is based on fifteen scientific peer-reviewed articles. The result showed that the majority of patients undergoing surgery and who received music interventions assessed their pain lower than those who did not. Music intervention is a simple, riskfree and cost-effective method which may be a complement to pharmacological treatment of post-operative pain.

A review of the literature identified that few research studies have been published which examined the post-operative pain of children, particularly those between the ages of 4 and 7 years. As a result, theoretical literature has been the major contributor to the understanding of the concept of children's post-operative pain. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the post-operative pain of hospitalized children aged 4 to 7 years on the first postoperative day, through a self-reported measure of pain intensity levels as well as descriptions of the children's overt behaviours used to express pain. Data were gathered on the pain intensity levels (using the PCT) and overt behaviours of 11 children between the ages of 4 and 8 years on the first post-operative day between the hours of 0800 and 2000. In addition, data regarding parental presence and the administration of analgesics were also collected for these children. Findings related to pain intensity scores provided the basis for three important conclusions. First, all of the children were able to place a value on their pain using the PCT. Second, all of the children were experiencing some degree of post-operative pain possibly related to the lack of consistent administration of analgesia. Third, parental presence did not influence the pain intensity scores reported by the children. Findings related to the overt behaviours exhibited by children also provided the basis for three important conclusions. First, the most frequent behaviours identified were not those normally associated with feelings of pain. The researcher believed that this lack of expected response was as a result of the children's ability to adapt and cope with the pain. Second, behavioural measurement of pain may not be a reliable and valid measure of post-operative pain. Third, parental presence or absence did not influence the overt behaviours exhibited. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Nursing, School of / Graduate

Bakgrund: Smärta är en subjektiv känsla där varje individ lär sig betydelsen av ordet genom egna erfarenheter. Smärta är något nästan alla upplever efter ett kirurgiskt ingrepp och där otillräcklig smärtlindring i den akuta fasen kan leda till svåra komplikationer vilket skapar lidande för patienten samt stora samhällsekonomiska kostnader. Syfte: Att beskriva patienters upplevelse av postoperativ smärtbehandling. Metod: Litteraturstudie med deskriptiv design av 11 kvalitativa originalartiklar från databaserna PubMed, CINAHL och PsycINFO vars innehåll analyserades i fem steg. Resultat: Patienter var överlag tillfredsställda trots smärta. Det fanns delade åsikter om nyttan av NRS (numerisk skala). Patienter hade en rad föreställningar om läkemedel som ledde dem till att undvika analgetika. Information ansågs vara huvudsakligen hjälpsamt, framför allt skriftlig, dock upplevde patienter att informationen var bristfällig. Attityd, tillit och kommunikation spelade en viktig roll för relationen mellan personal och patient. Patienter som genomgått dagkirurgi och behandlade sin smärta ensamma i hemmet med mycket begränsad kontakt med vårdpersonal, upplevde svårigheter att ta beslut och följa sin smärtbehandlingsplan. Patienter uppskattade att bli inkluderade och delaktiga i sin vård, även om det kunde upplevas som en börda, och tog många egna initiativ och egna strategier under sin behandling, ofta för att slippa använda analgetika. Tidigare erfarenheter var också något som ofta hjälpte patienter i deras smärtbehandling. Slutsats: Patienter var ofta nöjda med sin smärtbehandling trots att de fortfarande upplevde smärta, viktigast för att uppnå detta var en känsla av trygghet. Viktiga faktorer för detta var utförlig skriftlig och upprepad information om smärta, smärtbehandling och analgetika samt ett gott, professionellt, inkluderande och individanpassat bemötande från vårdpersonalen. Brister inom dessa områden ledde till oro och rädsla för det okända, vilket försvårade smärtupplevelsen. Patienter upplevde sällan fullgod smärtlindring. / Background: Pain is a subjective feeling where each individual learns the meaning of the word through their own experiences. Pain is something almost everyone experiences after a surgical procedure and where insufficient pain relief in the acute phase can lead to severe complications, which creates suffering for the patient and large socio-economic costs. Aim: To describe patients' experience of postoperative pain management. Method: Literature review with descriptive design of 11 qualitative original articles from the databases PubMed, CINAHL and PsycINFO whose contents were analyzed in five steps. Result: Patients were generally satisfied despite pain. There were different opinions about the benefits of the NRS (numeric rating scale). Patients had a number of conceptions about drugs that led them to avoid analgesics. Information was considered to be mainly helpful, especially written, however patients felt that the information was deficient. Attitude, trust and communication played an important role in the relationship between staff and patient. Patients who underwent day surgery and treated their pain alone in the home with very limited contact with health care professionals experienced difficulties in making decisions and following their pain management plan. Patients appreciated being included and involved in their care, although it could be perceived as a burden, and took many own initiatives and strategies during their treatment, often to avoid using analgesics. Previous experience was also something that often helped patients in their pain management. Conclusion: Patients were often satisfied with their pain management even though they were still experiencing pain, most important to achieve this was a peace of mind. Important factors for this were detailed written and repeated information about pain, pain treatment and analgesics as well as a good, professional, inclusive and individualized response from the care staff. Deficiencies in these areas led to worrying and fear of the unknown, which made the pain experience more difficult. Patients rarely experienced adequate pain relief.

Bakgrund   Akut nociceptiv smärta är en naturlig konsekvens av ett kirurgiskt ingrepp, däremot upplever upp till 70 procent av patienter svår till outhärdlig smärta i det postoperativa skedet. Den nya definitionen av smärta betonar smärtupplevelsens subjektiva karaktär, varpå det personcentrerade förhållningssättet är starkt indicerat. Ändå uppstår det divergens i sjuksköterskans och patientens postoperativa smärtskattning. Detta kan orsaka patienten lidande i form av postoperativa komplikationer, icke adekvat smärtlindring och utökad vårdtid. Ett behov har identifierats att vidare utforska patientens upplevelse av smärtskattning, där förhoppningsvis större klarhet kan genereras kring dennes process av smärtskattning, de bakomliggande faktorerna till att denne skattar annorlunda från sjuksköterskan samt utvecklingspotentialen för ett bättre samarbete och adekvat postoperativ smärtlindring. Syfte Syftet var att belysa patientens upplevelse av postoperativ smärtskattning  Metod Studien utgörs av en icke-systematisk litteraturöversikt grundat i 15 vetenskapliga originalartiklar. Artiklarna inhämtades från databaserna CINAHL och PubMed. Sophiahemmet Högskolans bedömningsunderlag för vetenskaplig klassificering har tillämpats för att kvalitetsgranska respektive artikel. För bearbetning av resultatet tillämpades en integrerad analys.  Resultat Tre kategorier identifierades vid sammanställning av resultatet: Patientens upplevelse av att beskriva smärta, faktorer som påverkar patientens smärtskattning och patientens önskemål kring smärtlindring. Resultatet redogör för personcentrering, kommunikation och patientdelaktighet som de centrala delarna i lyckad postoperativ smärtskattning och smärtlindring. Slutsats För att åstadkomma postoperativa smärtskattningar där patienten känner sig sedd, förstådd och hörd behöver processen individualiseras, personcentreras och befrias från sjuksköterskans förväntningar och förutfattade meningar. Patienterna behöver förses med adekvat information om smärta, hur smärtskattning går till och vilka smärtbehandlingsalternativ som finns, för att åstadkomma delaktighet och kvalitativ personcentrerad vård. / Background Acute nociceptive pain is a natural occurrence following a surgical procedure, however, up to 70 percent of patients experience severe to excruciating pain during the postoperative phase. The new definition of pain emphasizes the subjective character of pain, whereupon the person-centered approach is strongly indicated. Nevertheless, divergence occurs between the nurse´s and patient´s postoperative pain assessment. This can cause the patient suffering in the form of postoperative complications, inadequate pain relief and extended stay. A need has been identified to further explore the patient´s experience of pain assessment, where hopefully greater clarity is generated on their process of assessing pain, the underlying factors causing the patient and nurse assessing differently as well as the potential for better collaboration and adequate postoperative pain management. Aim The aim was to investigate the patient´s experience of postoperative pain assessment. Method The study consists of a non-systematic literature review based on 15 scientific articles. The articles were obtained through the databases CINAHL and PubMed. Sophiahemmet University’s assessment basis for scientific classification has been applied to quality check each article. An integrated analysis was applied to process the results. Results Three categories were identified when compiling the results: The patient´s experience of describing pain, influenceable factors on the patient’s pain assessment and patient requests regarding pain relief. The results present person-centered care, communication, and patient participation as the central key elements in successful postoperative pain assessment and pain management. Conclusions To achieve postoperative pain assessment where the patient feels seen, understood, and heard, the process needs to be individualized, person-centered and freed from the   nurse´s expectations and preconceptions. Patients need to be provided with adequate information on pain, how pain assessments work and what pain treatment options are available, to achieve patient participation and quality person-centered care.

Trots likartade operativa ingrepp upplever vi att det kan skilja mycket mellan behovet av smärtlindring postoperativt. Kanske erhåller patienten otillräcklig preoperativ information vilket skulle kunna resultera i onödig oro, som i sin tur kan påverka den postoperativa smärtupplevelsen. Målsättningen med den postoperativa smärtbehandlingen bör vara att förebygga smärtan snarare än att lindra den. Det är viktigt att förhindra att postoperativ smärta uppstår överhuvudtaget vilket medför minskad risk för uppkomst av kroniska smärtsyndrom. En förberedd och välinformerad patient kan hantera den postoperativa situationen bättre. Syftet med litteraturstudien var att undersöka forskning om sambandet mellan preoperativ information till patienten och patientens upplevelse av postoperativ smärta. Sammanställningen av 10 vetenskapliga och kvalitetsgranskade artiklar resulterade i en analys där fem olika kategorier kunde urskiljas. Resultatet visade att preoperativ information ledde till minskad postoperativ smärta men andra vinster kunde också identifieras. Andra vinster var minskad oro, ökad rörlighet och en känsla av bättre preoperativ förberedelse. Vid snabbare mobilisering sågs ett samband med tidigare hemgång. Inför utskrivning efterfrågades mer information för att hantera smärta och eventuella komplikationer. Dessutom visade resultatet att patienten önskade mer information om vem som skulle kontaktas vid eventuella frågor eller komplikationer. I takt med att ett förändrat informationssamhälle utvecklas, kommer sannolikt nya informationsmetoder att behövas. / Despite similar surgical procedures, it is our experience that it may differ greatly between the need for postoperative pain relief. Perhaps the patients receive inadequate preoperative information, which could result in unnecessary anxiety, which in turn may affect the postoperative pain experience. The aim of the postoperative pain treatment should be to prevent the pain rather than alleviating it. It is important to prevent postoperative pain in general, result in reduced occurrence of chronic pain syndromes. A well prepared and informed patient can manage the postoperative situation better. The aim of this study was to examine research on the relationship between preoperative patient information and patient experience of postoperative pain. The compilation of 10 scientific and peer-reviewed articles resulted in an analysis in which five different categories could be discerned. The results showed that preoperative education led to reduced postoperative pain, but other gains were also identified. Other benefits were reduced anxiety, increased mobility and a sense of being better preoperative prepared. The rapid mobilization was associated with earlier discharge. Before leaving hospital, patients requested more information to manage pain and possible complications. In addition, results showed that the patient wanted more information about who should be contacted with any questions or complications. As a changing information society develops, new methods of information will likely be needed in practice.

With an increasing prevalence of osteoarthritis, total knee (TKA) and hip (THA) arthroplasty are the second-and third-most common surgeries in Canada. Although these procedures improve pain and function for a majority of patients, some patients report persistent postoperative pain. Opioids are conventionally used for these patients even though they are associated with addiction, falls, overdose, and death. Recently, many strategies have been proposed to decrease reliance on opioids after TKA and THA, including opioid-free and opioid-reduced multimodal protocols for pain management. Our findings demonstrate that Canadian patients’ receptivity to opioid-free or reduced postoperative protocols is associated with their perception of the efficacy and safety of opioids compared to non-opioid alternatives, and current opioid use. More patients are open to opioid-reduced postoperative care as they perceive that pain will be intolerable without opioids. This overlaps with many Canadian surgeons’ perception that opioids cannot be completely eliminated from postoperative pain management regimens and that patients expect an intolerable level of pain after surgery, warranting opioid use. This highlights a need for enhanced patient education on the safety and efficacy of opioids and alternatives, while managing patients’ expectations of postoperative pain control. Most Canadian and Dutch surgeons reported that they prescribe opioids to nearly all of their patients postoperatively. However, our cross-sectional study indicates that 40% of Canadian patients would be open to receiving no opioids postoperatively. In contrast, Japanese surgeons believed that opioids are unnecessary for managing postoperative pain. Variations observed among orthopaedic surgeons in Canada, the Netherlands, and Japan can be attributed to differences at the surgeon-level (individual practices and beliefs), patient-level (patient characteristics and preferences), and system-level (regulatory frameworks and healthcare systems). Further research is required on surgeon-centered approaches to mitigating opioid use, focusing on education and guidelines/policies for opioid prescribing. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Opioid analgesics are routinely prescribed to manage pain after total knee and hip replacement surgery. However, opioids are not typically more effective than alternatives and are associated with addiction, overdose, and death. This thesis aims to understand the perceptions of patients and orthopaedic surgeons on opioid use after total knee and hip replacement surgery. The findings demonstrate that more patients are open to receiving opioid-reduced surgery compared to opioid-free surgery, with receptivity being associated with patients’ perceptions of opioid efficacy and safety and current opioid use, highlighting a need for improved patient education. Additionally, orthopaedic surgeons identified challenges and facilitators to postoperative opioid reduction in six key areas: opioid prescribing practices, patient factors, collaborative care, policies/guidelines, surgeon education and training, and personal perceptions/beliefs. Compared to Canadian and Dutch surgeons, Japanese surgeons heavily relied on non-opioid medications as they believed that opioids are unnecessary for managing postoperative pain.

Smärta är en subjektiv upplevelse där fenomenet erfars olika av alla. Postoperativ smärta är en akut smärta som uppkommer till följd av en operation, som ofta går att förebygga och lindra. För att uppmärksamma smärtan är det viktigt att sjuksköterskan bedömer, behandlar och utvärderar smärtan i syfte lindra lidande samt att främja hälsa och delaktighet. Syftet är att genom en litteraturöversikt belysa patienters upplevelser av postoperativ smärta. Metoden i denna studie är en litteraturöversikt baserat på kvalitativa artiklar. Datainsamlingen genomfördes i databaserna CINAHL och PubMed. Totalt inkluderades 13 kvalitativa artiklar. Resultatet visar att patienterna beskriver den postoperativa smärtan som hemsk, plågsam och ohanterlig. Postoperativ smärta kunde leda till oro, stress och sänkt livskvalitet, vilket påverkar välbefinnandet. Då kommunikationen kring patientens upplevda smärta var tydlig underlättades sjuksköterskans smärtbedömning. Den postoperativa smärtan upplevdes som mer hanterbar då patienterna fick ett positivt bemötande genom att sjuksköterskan var lyhörd och ingav ett förtroende, samt då både skriftlig och muntlig information gavs. Den postoperativa smärtan ökade om sjuksköterskans arbetsbelastning var hög eller om sjuksköterskan såg smärtan som ett normalt fenomen. Slutsatsen visar att postoperativ smärta är ett komplext fenomen, där sjuksköterskan har ett stort ansvar att se och lindra den upplevda smärtan. / Pain is a subjective experience where the phenomenon is detected differently by everyone. Postoperative pain is an acute pain that occurs as a result of surgery, which can often be prevented and alleviated. In order to draw attention to the patients’ pain, it is important that the nurses assess, treats and evaluates the pain with the aim of alleviating suffering and promoting health and participation. The aim is to illuminate patients’ experiences of postoperative pain in a literature review. The method in this study is a literature review based on qualitative studies. The data collection was carried out from the databases CINAHL and PubMed. A total of 13 qualitative articles were included. The results show that the patients describe the postoperative pain as terrible, excruciating and unmanageable. Postoperative pain might lead to anxiety, stress and reduced quality of life, which in turn affects the patient´s well-being. As the communication about the patient´s perceived pain was clear, the nurse´s pain assessment was facilitated. Postoperative pain was perceived as more manageable when patients were treated positively by the nurse in being responsive and trustful, and when both written and verbal information was provided to the patient. Postoperative pain increased when nurse´s workload was high, or if the nurse saw the patients’ pain as a normal phenomenon in which less attention was putted to offer the patient a full recovery. The conclusion reveals that postoperative pain is a complex phenomenon, where the nurse plays a necessary role in observing and alleviating the pain as experienced by the patient.

Antalet operationer i Sverige ökar, många är operationer av mag- och tarmkanalen. Brister rapporteras i behandlingen av smärta efter operationen, vilket kan leda till kroniska komplikationer för patienten. Smärtlindring främjar mobilisering och minskar komplikationer, det är en av sjuksköterskans främsta uppgifter att lindra lidande. Det är viktigt att vården tillgodoser patienternas behov av smärtlindring för att minska risken för komplikationer samt främja hållbar utveckling genom att nyttja vårdens resurser rätt. Studiens syfte är att belysa patienters upplevelse av postoperativ smärthantering efter mag-tarmkirurgi. Vald metod är allmän litteraturöversikt där främst kvalitativa artiklar används. Data samlas in från olika databaser för att finna kvalitativa studier. Datainsamlingen resulterar i relevanta artiklar med mixad metod av både kvalitativ och kvantitativ karaktär. Litteraturstudiens resultat baseras på data från de 11 utvalda artiklar som analyserats och sammanställts. Resultatet visar att patientens upplevelse i samband med postoperativ smärthantering efter mag-tarmkirurgi kan beskrivas genom sårbarheten när människan blir patient, där vårdrelationen har betydelse för smärtupplevelsen samt vikten av att känna delaktighet för att kunna påverka hur den postoperativa smärtan hanteras. Vidare framkommer att patienters upplevelser av postoperativ smärta präglas av faktorer såsom känslan av att vara till besvär, vikten av engagemang från sjuksköterskorna samt vilken information som ges under vårdtiden. Studien visar vikten av förtroende och god kommunikation mellan sjuksköterska och patient. Slutsatsen som kan dras är vikten av att patienten känner sig sedd utifrån sin livsvärld, även då patientens primära omvårdnadsbehov endast är smärthantering. / The number of surgeries in Sweden is increasing, with many of them being surgeries of the gastrointestinal tract. There are reported deficiencies in the treatment of pain after surgery, which can lead to chronic complications for the patient. Pain management is important for promoting mobilization and reducing complications, and it is one of the nurse's main tasks to alleviate suffering. It is important for healthcare to meet patients' needs for pain relief to reduce the risk of complications and promote sustainable development by utilizing healthcare resources correctly. The purpose of the study is to highlight patients' experiences of postoperative pain management after gastrointestinal surgery. The chosen method is a general literature review, primarily utilizing qualitative articles. Data is collected from various databases to find qualitative studies. The data collection results in relevant articles using a mixed method approach of both qualitative and quantitative method. The results of the literature review are based on data from the 11 selected and analyzed articles. The results show that patients' experiences of postoperative pain management after gastrointestinal surgery can be described through the vulnerability of becoming a patient, where the patient-care relationship is significant for the pain experience. The importance of feeling involved in influencing the management of postoperative pain is emphasized. Furthermore, patients' experiences of postoperative pain are influenced by factors such as feeling burdensome, the importance of engagement from nurses, and the information provided during care regarding the significance of pain relief and how different pain management methods work. The study highlights the importance of trust and good communication between nurses and patients. The conclusion that can be drawn is the importance of patients feeling seen from their life-world, even when their primary nursing need is pain management.

This thesis describes patients in acute postoperative pain as well as patients with acute cancer-related pain in palliative care, and their experiences and perceptions of pain management in relation to HRQOL and the multidimensionality of pain. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was chosen. Data were collected using interviews and questionnaires; APS, SF:36 and a new developed questionnaire PC-PPQ measuring care related to pain management in palliative care. For assessing pain VAS and Pain-o-Meter were used. The study group consisted of 100 patients on their second postoperative day, and of 75 patients with cancer-related pain from two palliative care teams. The result showed that at the time of the interview 29 of the patients with postoperative pain reported a pain > 3 on VAS and 79 reported VAS > 3 as worst pain past 24 hours. The higher the intensity of pain the less satisfied the postoperative patients were with the nurses´ way of treating their pain. Thirty-three patients stated that they had received information regarding the importance of pain relief. Patients with postoperative pain as well as patients with cancer-related pain had been prescribed analgesics mostly a combination of Paracetamol, NSAID and opioid. Of the 75 patients with cancer-related pain and in palliative care 22 patients reported pain >3 on POM-VAS and 47 patients reported >3 on POM-VAS as worst pain past 24 hours. Twenty-eight patients reported an average pain > 3 on POM-VAS past 24 hours. Twenty-four patients used the words troublesome or tiring when describing their affective pain. Sensory pain was described as prickling or sore by 15 patients. The patients perceived their pain as “aching all over” and expressed a wish for pain relief as well as a fear for increased pain. HRQOL especially physical functioning decreased for patients with average pain > 3. Being cared for by a nurseled or a physician-led palliative care team indicated no statistically significant differences for patients´ HRQOL or pain intensities. The patients had experienced a statistically significant better care after being referred to a palliative care team, despite that pain control had not been optimized. Patients expressed a need for communication, planning and trust in order to improve pain management. Continuity of care and the opportunity to talk increase the patients feeling of security, as well as improved their perceived pain control. Structured ongoing discussion concerning pain management from an early stage of the disease or already preoperatively can provide an important intervention to meet the results of this thesis. Pain assessment covering the multidimensionality of pain, and pain treatment plans including both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment are further important interventions.