Le réglage de la tension et la gestion de la puissance réactive est d’une importance capitale pour le bon fonctionnement du système électrique. Les réseaux de distribution connaissent des modifications profondes qui sont tant techniques avec l’insertion de la production décentralisée ou l’enfouissement des lignes aériennes, que réglementaires avec l’entrée en vigueur des codes de réseaux Européens. Aussi, des alternatives aux réglages traditionnels de tension et la mise en place de contrôle des échanges de puissance réactive à l’interface réseau de transport/distribution peuvent être développées. Dans le cadre de ces travaux de doctorat, une solution basée sur l’amélioration du réglage temps réel des réseaux de distribution ainsi que la mise en place d’une gestion conjointe de la puissance réactive entre les gestionnaires du réseau de transport et distribution a été proposée. Ce réglage temps réel est basé sur une méthode de commande prédictive, et s’appuie notamment sur le régleur en charge ou les productions décentralisées pour réaliser un réglage de la tension au sein d’un réseau de distribution et contrôler les échanges de puissance réactive. Les références de puissance réactive à atteindre à l’interface entre réseau de distribution et de transport sont déterminées par le gestionnaire du réseau de transport pour ses propres besoins et en connaissance des réserves de puissance réactive disponible depuis les réseaux de distribution. Par rapport à la littérature, notre démarche a pour originalité de prendre en compte les problèmes à l’interface des réseaux de distribution et de transport et démontre l’intérêt de mener des études conjointes entre gestionnaires / Voltage and reactive power control are of paramount importance to ensure safe and reliable operation of the power system. Distribution grids are undergoing major changes, namely the insertion of distributed generation and the replacement of overhead lines. Along with these physical evolutions, new distribution networks should comply with the requirements of the European Grid Codes on the reactive power exchange at the HV/MV interface. To handle these new operational concerns, alternative solutions to the traditional voltage and reactive power control can be found. In our work, a scheme based on the evolution of the real-time Volt Var Control (VVC) of distribution networks and a joint coordination for the reactive power management of a HV system has been proposed. The real-time VVC of MV grids is based on a predictive control method. This control uses in a coordinated manner the on load tap changer, the distributed generation and the capacitor banks to enforce a suitable MV voltage profile and an appropriate HV/MV reactive power exchange. The reactive power targets at the HV/MV interface are determined by the Transmission System Operator for its own requirements but considering the true MV reactive power reserve. Compared to the literature, the novelty of our approach consists in considering the concerns at the HV/MV system interface. Next our works have shown the relevance of performing joint transmission and distribution system operators analysis.

Contexte. Alors que le fait que les femmes manifestent moins de comportements antisociaux que les hommes est bien établi, l’étiologie des différences sexuelles liées à ces comportements demeure grandement incomprise. Objectif. Le but de cette thèse était de mieux comprendre l’étiologie des différences sexuelles liées aux comportements antisociaux de l’enfance au début de l’âge adulte. Cadre théorique. Les propositions des théories du contrôle en regard des différences sexuelles ont été examinées en comblant certaines de leurs limites utilisant une approche développementale. Les associations entre le contrôle parental, le contrôle de soi, le patriarcat familial et les comportements antisociaux des hommes et des femmes ont été analysées. Une attention particulière a été portée aux périodes développementales (ex., adolescence, âge adulte), aux types de comportements (ex., violents, contre les biens) et aux types de mesures (ex., autorapportés, dossiers criminels) afin d’assurer une analyse complète des différences sexuelles. Méthodologie. Les données proviennent de 3007 participants de l'Étude longitudinale québécoise des enfants de maternelle au Québec, prospectivement suivi de la maternelle au début de l'âge adulte. Les comportements antisociaux ont été mesurés à l'enfance (6 à 12 ans), à l'adolescence (13 à 17 ans) et au début de l’âge adulte (âgés de 18 à 26) par des questionnaires autorapportés, entrevues cliniques et dossiers criminels juvénile et adulte. Des analyses multiniveaux et modèles complexes non paramétriques (ex., régression binomiale négative avec inflation du zéro, régressions longitudinales à associations croisées) ont été utilisés pour vérifier les hypothèses des théories du contrôle social, du contrôle de soi, et du pouvoir-contrôle quant aux différences sexuelles. Principaux résultats. Les résultats ont montré que le contrôle de soi et le contrôle parental étaient associés de manière similaire aux comportements antisociaux des hommes et des femmes. Les filles avaient généralement un meilleur contrôle de soi et étaient plus contrôlées par leurs parents que les garçons, ce qui explique partiellement leur moins grande manifestation de comportements antisociaux. Ni les contrôles parentaux ni le contrôle de soi n’expliquent l’entièreté des différences sexuelles liées aux comportements antisociaux. Les résultats ont aussi révélé des influences réciproques entre le contrôle de soi, le contrôle parental et les comportements antisociaux, suggérant l’interaction de l'enfant avec son environnement dans l'émergence et la persistance des comportements antisociaux. Le patriarcat familial n’intervient généralement pas dans l’étiologie des comportements antisociaux des garçons ou des filles. Néanmoins, les résultats suggèrent que le contrôle de soi et le patriarcat familial pourraient influencer davantage la fréquence ou la diversité des comportements antisociaux rapportés dans les dossiers criminels. Conclusions. La présente thèse montre l’importance d’étudier les différences sexuelles liées aux comportements antisociaux dans toute leur complexité, c’est-à-dire en considérant la période développementale et les types de comportements et de mesures. Les résultats suggèrent que les mêmes facteurs de risque du contrôle seraient associés aux comportements antisociaux des hommes et des femmes et que ces facteurs de risque auraient un effet similaire sur eux. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’exposition différentielle des hommes et des femmes à ces facteurs de risque expliquerait les différences sexuelles liées aux comportements antisociaux. Un modèle alternatif du contrôle est proposé pour améliorer la compréhension de l’étiologie de ces différences sexuelles. / Context. The fact that girls manifest less antisocial behavior than boys is well known, although the etiology of the sex differences in antisocial behavior is still relatively misunderstood. Objective. The aim is to improve the understanding of the etiology of sex differences in antisocial behavior from childhood to early adulthood. Theoretical Framework. A theoretical framework was built based on control theories in criminology, addressing their weaknesses with developmental studies strengths. Associations between three control-related constructs (i.e., self-control, parental control, and familial patriarchy) and boys’ and girls’ antisocial behavior is assessed across developmental periods, in addition to their interplay. Method. Data are from 3007 participants of the Québec Longitudinal Study of Kindergarten Children prospectively followed from kindergarten to early-adulthood. Antisocial behavior was assessed during childhood (ages 6 to 12), adolescence (ages 13 to 17) and early adulthood (ages 18 to 26) using questionnaires, clinical interviews, and juvenile and adult official records. Multilevel analyses and non-parametric complex models (e.g., Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial Regressions, Cross-Lagged Path Modeling) were used to test the hypotheses regarding sex differences in antisocial behavior proposed by self-control theory, social control theory and power-control theory. Main Results. Results showed that self-control and parental control are risk factors of antisocial behavior for boys and girls. Girls generally had a better self-control and were more controlled by their parents than boys, which partially explained that they manifested less antisocial behavior. Neither self-control nor parental control explained the entirety of the noted sex differences in antisocial behavior. In addition, there were reciprocal influences between self-control, parental control, and antisocial behavior from childhood to adolescence, suggesting a transactional process of the child and its environment in the emergence and persistence of antisocial behavior. Familial patriarchy was overall not associated with boys’ or girls’ manifestation of antisocial behavior. Results, however, indicated that self-control and familial patriarchy could have a stronger influence in regards of the frequency and/or diversity officially recorded antisocial behavior. Conclusions. This thesis supports the relevance of considering all variations in sex differences in antisocial behavior, namely variations across developmental periods, types of behavior and measures. Results suggest that the same control risk factors are associated with boys’ and girls’ antisocial behavior and that those risk factors have a similar effect for them. Sex differences in exposition to those risk factors would generally better explain sex differences in antisocial behavior. An alternative developmental model of control is proposed to account for all sex differences.

Attempts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are promising with the recent dramatic increase of installed renewable energy sources (RES) capacity. Integration of large intermittent renewable resources affects smart grid systems in several significant ways, such as transient and voltage stability, existing protection scheme, and power leveling and energy balancing. To protect the grid from threats related to these issues, utilities impose rigorous technical requirements, more importantly, focusing on fault ride through requirements and active/reactive power responses following disturbances. This dissertation is aimed at developing and verifying the advanced and algorithmic methods for specification of protection schemes, reactive power capability and power control requirements for interconnection of the RESs to the smart grid systems. The first findings of this dissertation verified that the integration of large RESs become more promising from the energy-saving, and downsizing perspective by introducing a resistive superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL) as a self-healing equipment. The proposed SFCL decreased the activation of the conventional control scheme for the wind power plant (WPP), such as dc braking chopper and fast pitch angle control systems, thereby increased the reliability of the system. A static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) has been proposed to assist with the uninterrupted operation of the doubly-fed induction generators (DFIGs)-based WTs during grid disturbances. The key motivation of this study was to design a new computational intelligence technique based on a multi-objective optimization problem (MOP), for the online coordinated reactive power control between the DFIG and the STATCOM in order to improve the low voltage ride-through (LVRT) capability of the WT during the fault, and to smooth low-frequency oscillations of the active power during the recovery. Furthermore, the application of a three-phase single-stage module-integrated converter (MIC) incorporated into a grid-tied photovoltaic (PV) system was investigated in this dissertation. A new current control scheme based on multivariable PI controller, with a faster dynamic and superior axis decoupling capability compared with the conventional PI control method, was developed and experimentally evaluated for three-phase PV MIC system. Finally, a study was conducted based on the framework of stochastic game theory to enable a power system to dynamically survive concurrent severe multi-failure events, before such failures turn into a full blown cascading failure. This effort provides reliable strategies in the form of insightful guidelines on how to deploy limited budgets for protecting critical components of the smart grid systems.

In this thesis we study several resource management problems in two classes of wireless networks. The thesis is in two parts, the first being concerned with game theoretic approaches for cellular networks, and the second with control theoretic approaches for mobile opportunistic networks. In Part I of the thesis, we first investigate optimal association and power control for the uplink of multichannel multicell cellular networks, in which each channel is used by exactly one base station (BS) (i.e., cell). Users have minimum signal to interference ratio(SINR) requirements and associate with BSs where least transmission powers are required. We formulate the problem as a non-cooperative game among users. We propose a distributed association and power update algorithm, and show its convergence to a Nash equilibrium of the game. We consider network models with discrete mobiles(yielding an atomic congestion game),as well as a continuum of mobiles(yielding a population game). We find that the equilibria need not be Pareto efficient, nor need they be system optimal. To address the lack of system optimality, we propose pricing mechanisms. We show that these prices weakly enforce system optimality in general, and strongly enforce it in special settings. We also show that these mechanisms can be implemented in distributed fashions. Next, we consider the hierarchical problems of user association and BS placement, where BSs may belong to the same(or, cooperating) or to competing service providers. Users transmit with constant power, and associate with base stations that yield better SINRs. We formulate the association problem as a game among users; it determines the cell corresponding to each BS. Some intriguing observations we report are:(i)displacing a BS a little in one direction may result in a displacement of the boundary of the corresponding cell to the opposite direction;(ii)A cell corresponding to a BS may be the union of disconnected sub-cells. We then study the problem of the placement of BSs so as to maximize service providers’ revenues. The service providers need to take into account the mobiles’ behavior that will be induced by the placement decisions. We consider the cases of single frequency band and disjoint frequency bands of operation. We also consider the networks in which BSs employ successive interference cancellation(SIC) decoding. We observe that the BS locations are closer to each other in the competitive case than in the cooperative case, in all scenarios considered. Finally, we study cooperation among cellular service providers. We consider networks in which communications involving different BSs do not interfere. If service providers jointly deploy and pool their resources, such as spectrum and BSs, and agree to serve each others’ customers, their aggregate payoff substantially increases. The potential of such cooperation can, however ,be realized only if the service providers intelligently determine who they would cooperate with, how they would deploy and share their resources, and how they would share the aggregate payoff. We first assume that the service providers can arbitrarily share the aggregate payoff. A rational basis for payoff sharing is imperative for the stability of the coalitions. We study cooperation using the theory of transferable payoff coalitional games. We show that the optimum cooperation strategy, which involves the acquisition of channels, and deployment and allocation of BSs to customers, is the solution of a concave or an integer optimization problem. We then show that the grand coalition is stable, i.e., if all the service providers cooperate, there is an operating point offering each service provider a share that eliminates the possibility of a subset of service providers splitting from the grand coalition; this operating point also maximizes the service providers’ aggregate payoff. These stabilizing payoff shares are computed by solving the dual of the above optimization problem. Moreover, the optimal cooperation strategy and the stabilizing payoff shares can be obtained in polynomial time using distributed computations and limited exchange of confidential information among the service providers. We then extend the analysis to the scenario where service providers may not be able to share their payoffs. We now model cooperation as a nontransferable payoff coalitional game. We again show that there exists a cooperation strategy that leaves no incentive for any subset of service providers to split from the grand coalition. To compute this cooperation strategy and the corresponding payoffs, we relate this game and its core to an exchange market and its equilibrium. Finally, we extend the formulations and the results to the case when customers are also decision makers in coalition formation. In Part II of this thesis, we consider the problem of optimal message forwarding in mobile opportunistic wireless networks. A message originates at a node(source), and has to be delivered to another node (destination). In the network, there are several other nodes that can assist in relaying the message at the expense of additional transmission energies. We study the trade-off between delivery delay and energy consumption. First, we consider mobile opportunistic networks employing two-hop relaying. Because of the intermittent connectivity, the source may not have perfect knowledge of the delivery status at every instant. We formulate the problem as a stochastic control problem with partial information, and study structural properties of the optimal policy. We also propose a simple suboptimal policy. We then compare the performance of the suboptimal policy against that of the optimal control with perfect information. These are bounds on the performance of the proposed policy with partial information. We also discuss a few other related open loop policies. Finally, we investigate the case where a message has to be delivered to several destinations, but we are concerned with delay until a certain fraction of them receive the message. The network employs epidemic relaying. We first assume that, at every instant, all the nodes know the number of relays carrying the packet and the number of destinations that have received the packet. We formulate the problem as a controlled continuous time Markov chain, and derive the optimal forwarding policy. As observed earlier, the intermittent connectivity in the network implies that the nodes may not have the required perfect knowledge of the system state. To address this issue, we then obtain an ODE(i.e., a deterministic fluid) approximation for the optimally controlled Markov chain. This fluid approximation also yields an asymptotically optimal deterministic policy. We evaluate the performance of this policy over finite networks, and demonstrate that this policy performs close to the optimal closed loop policy. We also briefly discuss the case where message forwarding is accomplished via two-hop relaying.

Massive proliferation of wireless devices throughout world in the past decade comes with a host of tough and demanding design problems. Noise at receivers and wireless interference are the two major issues which severely limits the received signal quality and the quantity of users that can be simultaneously served. Traditional approaches to this problems are known as Power Control (PC), SINR Balancing (SINRB) and User Selection (US) in Wireless Networks respectively. Interestingly, for a large class of wireless system models, both this problems have a generic form. Thus any approach to this generic optimization problem benefits the transceiver design of all the underlying wireless models. In this thesis, we propose an Eigen approach based on the Joint Numerical Range (JNR) of hermitian matrices for PC, SINRB and US problems for a class of wireless models. In the beginning of the thesis, we address the PC and SINRB problems. PC problems can be expressed as Homogeneous Quadratic Constrained Quadratic Optimization Problems (HQCQP) which are known to be NP-Hard in general. Leveraging their connection to JNR, we show that when the constraints are fewer, HQCQP problems admit iterative schemes which are considerably fast compared to the state of the art and have guarantees of global convergence. In the general case for any number of constraints, we show that the true solution can be bounded above and below by two convex optimization problems. Our numerical simulations suggested that the bounds are tight in almost all scenarios suggesting the achievement of true solution. Further, the SINRB problems are shown to be intimately related to PC problems, and thus share the same approach. We then proceed on to comment on the convexity of PC problems and SINRB problems in the general case of any number of constraints. We show that they are intimately related to the convexity of joint numerical range. Based on this connection, we derive results on the attainability of solution and comment on the same about the state-of-the-art technique Semi-De nite Relaxation (SDR). In the subsequent part of the thesis, we address the US problem. We show that the US problem can be formulated as a combinatorial problem of selecting a feasible subset of quadratic constraints. We propose two approaches to the US problem. The first approach is based on the JNR view point which allows us to propose a heuristic approach. The heuristic approach is then shown to be equivalent to a convex optimization problem. In the second approach, we show that the US is equivalent to another non-convex optimization problem. We then propose a convex approximation approach to the latter. Both the approaches are shown to have near optimal performance in simulations. We conclude the thesis with a discussion on applicability and extension to other class of optimization problems and some open problems which has come out of this work.

La croissance exponentielle du nombre de dispositifs communicants et des services sans fils émergents fixe des objectifs toujours plus haut pour répondre à la demande de capacité sans cesse croissante des utilisateurs. Cela pose des défis constants pour atteindre les objectifs envisagés. La réutilisation spectrale élevée (High efficiency spectral reuse) a été adopté, cependant, elle conduit à des interférences accrues sur le réseau, ce qui dégrade les performances. L'OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) est utilisé comme solution dans les réseaux de 4 G. Grâce à son orthogonalité, l'OFDM élimine l'interférence intra-cellulaire, mais l'interférence inter-cellule reste importante. Plusieurs méthodes connues sous le nom d'Inter-Cell interférences coordination (ICIC) ont été proposées pour les diminuer. L'ICIC permet la gestion des ressources radio coordonnée entre plusieurs cellules appelées ENodeB. Ces eNodeB peuvent partager les informations nécessaires grâce à l'interface X2 qui les relient, ces informations sont transmises par des messages LTE normalisés. Lorsque les ENodeBs sélectionnent égoïstement les ressources, la théorie de jeux non-coopératifs est largement appliquée pour trouver un juste équilibre. Dans cette thèse, nous mettons l'accent sur l'ICIC pour la liaison descendante d'un système OFDMA cellulaire dans le contexte du projet SOAPS (Spectrum opportuniste accès à la Sécurité publique). Ce projet a pour but l'amélioration de la planification des ressources de fréquences pour fournir des services à large bande dans les systèmes PMR (radiocommunications mobiles privées) en utilisant les technologies LTE. Nous adressons le problème d'ICIC en proposant quatre solutions différentes sous forme d'algorithmes entièrement décentralisés, ces algorithmes se basent sur la théorie des jeux non-coopératifs avec des équilibres de Nash purs des jeux considérés / The exponential growth in the number of communications devices has set out new ambitious targets to meet the ever-increasing demand for user capacity in emerging wireless systems. However, the inherent impairments of communication channels in cellular systems pose constant challenges to meet the envisioned targets. High spectral reuse efficiency was adopted as a solution to higher data rates. Despite its benefits, high spectral reuse leads to increased interference over the network, which degrades performances of mobile users with bad channel quality. To face this added interfence, OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is used for the new 4th generation network. Thanks to its orthogonality OFDM eliminates the intra-cellular interference, but when the same resources are used in two adjacents cells, the inter-cell interference becomes severe. To get rid of the latter, several methods for Inter-Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC) have been proposed. ICIC allows coordinated radio resources management between multiple cells. The eNodeBs can share resource usage information and interference levels over the X2 interface through LTE-normalized messages. Non-cooperative game theory was largely applied were eNodeBs selfishly selects resource blocks (RBs) in order to minimize interference. In this thesis, we stress on ICIC for the downlink of a cellular OFDMA system in the context of the SOAPS (Spectrum Opportunistic Access in Public Safety) project. This project focuses on the improvement of frequency resource scheduling for Broadband Services provision by PMR (Private Mobile Radio) systems using LTE technologies. We addressed this problem with four different solutions based on Non-cooperative game theory, three algorithms are devoted to RB selection in order to manage the interference, while the last one is a power control scheme with power economy and enhanced system performances

Energy system is important for classification of flation of developing countries. Function of energy system is supply electric power of high quality for every customers in system. Requirements of quality are different for individual countries. Reliability of electricity sector system is important parameter in every electricity systems. At the present time are the requirements of quality much higher, because of condition of liberalized market. Each country have different systems of standards of classification of reliability. Penalizations are assign to, when the systems of standards are overrun. Type of penalization is different for each countries. In my work I looked on system of electricity sector system, its reliability, operating, and organization etc. In principle for Czech Republic. Basic documents of electric legislation are described in this work, it is described for Czech Republic and for European Union. Public notice No. 540/2005 Sb. is described. This public notice interpret laws about supplies of electricity and others services in electricity sector system in Czech Republic. Penalizations are described in this public notice. Standards of penalizations are different for each European countries. Various monitoring of penalization are used. Also dividing of penalization is different for each country. At the last part of my work I analyze costs of penalization in required distribution network. Most reason of failure cause are analyzed here. Size of costs of penalization are compared in this part of my work, for changes of standards in required distribution networks. Required countries are Czech Republic, Great Britain and Spain. These countries are compare with each other. I evaluate the worst outlets of required distribution network. The worst outlets are outlets with higher costs of penalizations. These worst outlet I compare for required countries and between each other. At the end of my work I analyze failure causes for the worst outlets in penalization system of Czech Republic.

The aim of this thesis is description of critical situations in the electrical grid and the consequences which can be caused by these situations. Further possibilities of voltage recovery and ways how to reach the needed voltage are described. Another part is firstly about regulation electrical system and resources which are connected to this system. Secondly there is appraisal of possibility of connection new resource into distribution system 110 kV and conditions of connection new resources. The result of the thesis is description voltage recovery and the rules which have to be kept during critical situations.

Der Ausbau dezentraler Energieanlagen wie fotovoltaischen Anlagen beeinflusst die Netzzustände signifikant. Dabei ist unsicher, wo und in welchem Maße deren Ausbau zukünftig erfolgt. Es ist nun an den Netzbetreibern gleichzeitig die aktuellen Herausforderungen zu meistern und die Netzplanung und -regelung für die Zukunft zu aktualisieren. Eine statistische Methode wird entwickelt, die Verteilnetzplanung unter Einsatz von quasi-stationär modellierten ”Smart Grid”-Lösungen wie Blindleistungsreglern und regelbaren Ortsnetztransformatoren ermöglicht. Durch Stichprobenverfahren werden Unsicherheiten wie Ort, Größe und Leistungsprofile der Energieanlagen in das Netzmodell eingebunden. Diese als probabilistischer Lastfluss bekannte Methode wird durch Gütemaße im Bereich geringer Kombination evaluiert. Beispiele probabilistischer Netzplanung werden an Netztopologien präsentiert.:Abbildungsverzeichnis iv Tabellenverzeichnis viii Abkürzungsverzeichnis viii Formelzeichen x 1. Einleitung 1 1.1. Definition der Herausforderung 1 1.2. Netzplanung 2 1.3. Ziel der Arbeit3 1.4. Struktur der Arbeit 5 2. Normen und technische Rahmenbedingungen 6 2.1. DIN EN 50160 6 2.2. VDE-AR-N 41057 2.3. Technische Anschlussbedingungen 9 2.4. Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz 11 2.5. Zusammenfassung 12 3. Gliederung probabilistischer Lastflussverfahren 13 3.1. Punktschätzende und iterative Verfahren 14 3.2. Gliederung nach Stichprobenverfahren 15 3.3. Reduzierung des Grundraumes 16 3.3.1. Cluster-Analyse17 3.3.2. Ausreißerbehandlung 21 3.3.3. Wahrscheinlichkeits- und Verteilungsfunktion 21 3.4. Methode der Stichprobenziehung 22 3.4.1. Einfache Zufallsstichprobe 23 3.4.2. Systematische Stichprobe24 3.4.3. Geschichtete Zufallsstichprobe 25 3.5. Reduzierung des Stichprobenraumes 26 3.6. Invertierung von Stichproben 26 3.7. Zusammenfassung 27 4. Vergleich probabilistischer Verfahren 28 4.1. Nicht-Gaußsche Eingangsdaten 28 4.2. Bestimmung notwendiger Clusterzentren 29 4.3. Erstellung des Stichprobenraumes pro Kombination 31 4.4. Gütemaße und Effizienz von Stichprobenverfahren 33 4.4.1. Median 34 4.4.2. Median der absoluten Abweichung vom Median 37 4.4.3. Maximale normierte Perzentilsdifferenz 40 4.4.4. Zusammenfassung 43 4.5. Streuung der Stichprobenverfahren bei wiederholter Ausführung 44 4.5.1. Median 44 4.5.2. Median der absoluten Abweichung vom Median 45 4.5.3. Maximale normierte Perzentilsdifferenz 47 4.5.4. Zusammenfassung 49 4.6. Sensitivität bei unterschiedlicher Anzahl statistischer Netzknoten 52 4.6.1. Median 52 4.6.2. Median der absoluten Abweichung vom Median 54 4.6.3. Maximale normierte Perzentilsdifferenz 56 4.6.4. Zusammenfassung58 4.7. Notwendige Kombinationen für Ziel-Gütemaße 59 5. Software-basierte probabilistische Verteilnetzplanung 61 5.1. Struktur der entwickeltenSoftware 61 5.2. Last- und Erzeugungsprofile 63 5.2.1. Synthetische Haushaltslast 63 5.2.2. Elektrofahrzeug 64 5.2.3. Wärmepumpe 65 5.2.4. Photovoltaische Anlagen 66 5.2.5. Windenergieanlagen 66 5.3. Optimale Auswahl nach Regeleffizienz 67 5.4. DezentraleWirkleistungsregler 68 5.4.1. P(U)-Regler für Schnellladeinfrastruktur 68 5.4.2. P(U)-Regelung von Wärmepumpen gemäß thermischer Grenzen 69 5.5. Blindleistungsregler 72 5.5.1. Zentrale Steuerung 73 5.5.2. Dezentrale Regelung 75 5.5.3. Verteilte Regelung 79 5.6. Regelbarer Ortsnetztransformator 83 5.7. Automatisierte Netzausbauplanung 86 5.7.1. Transformatortausch 87 5.7.2. Vergrößerung des Leiterquerschnitts 89 5.7.3. Zusätzliche Stichleitung 89 5.7.4. Kostenberechnung 90 5.8. Zusammenfassung 91 6. Anwendungsfälle probabilistischer Planung 92 6.1. Verwendete Verteilnetzmodelle 94 6.2. Abschätzung der Auswirkung von PV-Anlagenausbau 95 6.2.1. Unterschiede der Planungsverfahren zur Schätzung der PVA-Nennleistung 95 6.2.2. Einfluss der Blindleistungsregelung auf mögliche Anlagenleistung 100 6.3. Abschätzung von Netzauslastungen in Wohngebieten 106 6.3.1. Annahmen und Szenarien 107 6.3.2. Auswertung der Knotenspannungen 110 6.3.3. Auswertung der Betriebsmittelauslastungen 116 6.4. Zusammenfassung 118 7. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 119 Literaturverzeichnis 121 Anhang 135 A. Statistische Merkmale 135 A.1. Empirische Wahrscheinlichkeitsfunktion 135 A.2. Kumulative empirische Verteilungsfunktion 136 A.3. Quantile 136 A.4. Interquartilsabstand 137 B. PLF-Methoden 138 B.1. Veröffentlichte PLF-Methoden 138 B.2. Test Gaußsche Verteilung 138 C. Definitionen 140 C.1. Symbole für Flussdiagramme 140 C.2. Zählpfeilsystem 140 D. Ergänzende Ergebnisse 142 E. Danksagung 143 / Development of distributed energy units such as photovoltaic systems affects grid states significantly. It is uncertain, where and to what extent the development of these units is carried out in the future. It is now up to the distribution system operator to cope with todays grid challenges and to update grid planning and control for the future. A statistical method is developed, which incorporates quasi-stationary modeled ”smart grid” solutions such as reactive power controllers and on-load tap-changers. Uncertainties such as location, size and power profiles of energy systems are integrated into the grid model by sampling. This method is known as probabilistic load flow and is evaluated by quality measures at low combinations. Examples on probabilistic grid planning of different grid topologies are presented.:Abbildungsverzeichnis iv Tabellenverzeichnis viii Abkürzungsverzeichnis viii Formelzeichen x 1. Einleitung 1 1.1. Definition der Herausforderung 1 1.2. Netzplanung 2 1.3. Ziel der Arbeit3 1.4. Struktur der Arbeit 5 2. Normen und technische Rahmenbedingungen 6 2.1. DIN EN 50160 6 2.2. VDE-AR-N 41057 2.3. Technische Anschlussbedingungen 9 2.4. Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz 11 2.5. Zusammenfassung 12 3. Gliederung probabilistischer Lastflussverfahren 13 3.1. Punktschätzende und iterative Verfahren 14 3.2. Gliederung nach Stichprobenverfahren 15 3.3. Reduzierung des Grundraumes 16 3.3.1. Cluster-Analyse17 3.3.2. Ausreißerbehandlung 21 3.3.3. Wahrscheinlichkeits- und Verteilungsfunktion 21 3.4. Methode der Stichprobenziehung 22 3.4.1. Einfache Zufallsstichprobe 23 3.4.2. Systematische Stichprobe24 3.4.3. Geschichtete Zufallsstichprobe 25 3.5. Reduzierung des Stichprobenraumes 26 3.6. Invertierung von Stichproben 26 3.7. Zusammenfassung 27 4. Vergleich probabilistischer Verfahren 28 4.1. Nicht-Gaußsche Eingangsdaten 28 4.2. Bestimmung notwendiger Clusterzentren 29 4.3. Erstellung des Stichprobenraumes pro Kombination 31 4.4. Gütemaße und Effizienz von Stichprobenverfahren 33 4.4.1. Median 34 4.4.2. Median der absoluten Abweichung vom Median 37 4.4.3. Maximale normierte Perzentilsdifferenz 40 4.4.4. Zusammenfassung 43 4.5. Streuung der Stichprobenverfahren bei wiederholter Ausführung 44 4.5.1. Median 44 4.5.2. Median der absoluten Abweichung vom Median 45 4.5.3. Maximale normierte Perzentilsdifferenz 47 4.5.4. Zusammenfassung 49 4.6. Sensitivität bei unterschiedlicher Anzahl statistischer Netzknoten 52 4.6.1. Median 52 4.6.2. Median der absoluten Abweichung vom Median 54 4.6.3. Maximale normierte Perzentilsdifferenz 56 4.6.4. Zusammenfassung58 4.7. Notwendige Kombinationen für Ziel-Gütemaße 59 5. Software-basierte probabilistische Verteilnetzplanung 61 5.1. Struktur der entwickeltenSoftware 61 5.2. Last- und Erzeugungsprofile 63 5.2.1. Synthetische Haushaltslast 63 5.2.2. Elektrofahrzeug 64 5.2.3. Wärmepumpe 65 5.2.4. Photovoltaische Anlagen 66 5.2.5. Windenergieanlagen 66 5.3. Optimale Auswahl nach Regeleffizienz 67 5.4. DezentraleWirkleistungsregler 68 5.4.1. P(U)-Regler für Schnellladeinfrastruktur 68 5.4.2. P(U)-Regelung von Wärmepumpen gemäß thermischer Grenzen 69 5.5. Blindleistungsregler 72 5.5.1. Zentrale Steuerung 73 5.5.2. Dezentrale Regelung 75 5.5.3. Verteilte Regelung 79 5.6. Regelbarer Ortsnetztransformator 83 5.7. Automatisierte Netzausbauplanung 86 5.7.1. Transformatortausch 87 5.7.2. Vergrößerung des Leiterquerschnitts 89 5.7.3. Zusätzliche Stichleitung 89 5.7.4. Kostenberechnung 90 5.8. Zusammenfassung 91 6. Anwendungsfälle probabilistischer Planung 92 6.1. Verwendete Verteilnetzmodelle 94 6.2. Abschätzung der Auswirkung von PV-Anlagenausbau 95 6.2.1. Unterschiede der Planungsverfahren zur Schätzung der PVA-Nennleistung 95 6.2.2. Einfluss der Blindleistungsregelung auf mögliche Anlagenleistung 100 6.3. Abschätzung von Netzauslastungen in Wohngebieten 106 6.3.1. Annahmen und Szenarien 107 6.3.2. Auswertung der Knotenspannungen 110 6.3.3. Auswertung der Betriebsmittelauslastungen 116 6.4. Zusammenfassung 118 7. Zusammenfassung und Ausblick 119 Literaturverzeichnis 121 Anhang 135 A. Statistische Merkmale 135 A.1. Empirische Wahrscheinlichkeitsfunktion 135 A.2. Kumulative empirische Verteilungsfunktion 136 A.3. Quantile 136 A.4. Interquartilsabstand 137 B. PLF-Methoden 138 B.1. Veröffentlichte PLF-Methoden 138 B.2. Test Gaußsche Verteilung 138 C. Definitionen 140 C.1. Symbole für Flussdiagramme 140 C.2. Zählpfeilsystem 140 D. Ergänzende Ergebnisse 142 E. Danksagung 143

The installation of wind power plant has significantly increased since several years due to the recent necessity of creating renewable and clean energy sources. Before the accomplishment of a wind power project many pre-studies are required in order to verify the possibility of integrating a wind power plant in the electrical network. The creation of models in different software and their simulation can bring the insurance of a secure operation that meets the numerous requirements imposed by the electrical system. Hence, this Master thesis work consists in the creation of a wind turbine model. This model represents the turbines installed at Lillgrund wind farm, the biggest wind power plant in Sweden. The objectives of this project are to first develop an accurate model of the wind turbines installed at Lillgrund wind farm and further to use it in different kinds of simulations. Those simulations test the wind turbine operating according to different control modes. Also, a power quality analysis is carried out studying in particular two power quality phenomena, namely, the response to voltage sags and the harmonic distortion. The model is created in the software PSCAD that enables the dynamic and static simulations of electromagnetic and electromechanical systems. The model of the wind turbine contains the electrical machine, the power electronics (converters), and the controls of the wind turbine. Especially, three different control modes, e.g., voltage control, reactive power control and power factor control, are implemented, tested and compared. The model is tested according to different cases of voltage sag and the study verifies the fault-ride through capability of the turbine. Moreover, a harmonics analysis is done. Eventually the work concludes about two power quality parameters.