Doctor of Philosophy / Computing and Information Sciences / Scott A. DeLoach / As sensor prices drop and computing devices continue to become more compact and powerful, computing capabilities are being embedded throughout our physical environment. Connecting these devices in cyber-physical systems (CPS) enables applications with significant societal impact and economic benefit. However, engineering CPS poses modeling, architecture, and engineering challenges and, to fully realize the desired benefits, many outstanding challenges must be addressed. For the cyber parts of CPS, two decades of work in the design of autonomous agents and multiagent systems (MAS) offers design principles for distributed intelligent systems and formalizations for agent-oriented software engineering (AOSE). MAS foundations offer a natural fit for enabling distributed interacting devices. In some cases, complex control structures such as holarchies can be advantageous. These can motivate complex organizational strategies when implementing such systems with a MAS, and some designs may require agents to act in multiple groups simultaneously. Such agents must be able to manage their multiple associations and assignments in a consistent and unambiguous way. This thesis shows how designing agents as systems of intelligent subagents offers a reusable and practical approach to designing complex systems. It presents a set of flexible, reusable components developed for OBAA++, an organization-based architecture for single-group MAS, and shows how these components were used to develop the Adaptive Architecture for Systems of Intelligent Systems (AASIS) to enable multigroup agents suitable for complex, multigroup MAS. This work illustrates the reusability and flexibility of the approach by using AASIS to simulate a CPS for an intelligent power distribution system (IPDS) operating two multigroup MAS concurrently: one providing continuous voltage control and a second conducting discrete power auctions near sources of distributed generation.

Thesis (M. Tech. Electrical engineering) -- Central University of technology, Free State, 2012 / Infrared thermography is a non-contact method of identifying the thermal behaviour of various plant equipment and machines, including their components, qualitatively via pattern recognition and quantitatively via statistical analysis. This allows for the development of condition monitoring and predictive failure analysis. It is well established that optimized maintenance planning can be more effective when a problem is detected in the early stages of failure. For example, in electrical systems an elevated electrical resistance caused by loose or corroded connections, broken conductor strands and dirty contact surfaces, results in localized heating, and a unique infrared pattern when analysed leads to the location of the problem and an indication of its severity. In recent years industrial thermography has used infrared detectors in the long wave portion of the electromagnetic spectrum normally between 8μm and 15μm, due partly to the fact that these wavelengths are not susceptible to solar radiation and/or solar glint. A number of scientific experiments were carried out on test apparatus to improve the understanding of the impact of convection, ambient air temperature and relative humidity on resultant infrared thermal images. Two similar heat sources, simulating a hotspot, at different temperature settings were used to determine whether the hotspot temperature should also be considered in conjunction with the atmospheric elements. The need for these experiments has also been identified by EPRI (Electrical Power Research Institute) in the USA as necessary to develop international severity criteria, and it is hoped that this study will contribute to this goal.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African Electricity Distribution Industry is riddled with tariffs. Every utility in South Africa probably uses some method for allocating cost, whether it is theoretically founded or not. There are currently over 2000 different tariffs in South Africa and the need for rationalisation has been widely recognised and acknowledged. Many of these tariffs have not been the outflow of accepted methodologies but rather a function of individual utility policy and practices. There is however a dire need to standardise such methodologies in the future. A standardised methodology might be the only way to eventually rationalise the thousands of tariffs that exist in the electricity industry. Government has emphasised the importance of tariffs to be cost reflective in the future. The only possible way to reach this objective would be to determine clear and concise methods of allocating cost that can be utilised by the entire industry. This study project describes a standardised methodology for determining the cost to supply different customer categories in an electricity distributor. The methodology offers enough flexibility not to bind any party into laboursome, complex and time consuming costing activities. It does however require that the costs of a distributor are carefully investigated and all functions performed in the utility are isolated. This is referred to as ringfencing of costs. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse Elektrisiteitverspreidingsbedryf het veelvuldige tariewe. Elke utiliteit in Suid-Afrika gebruik waarskynlik 'n metode vir kostetoedeling, wat nie noodwendig teoreties gebaseer is nie. Huidiglik is daar meer as 2000 verskillende tariewe in Suid-Afrika en dit word alom besef en erken dat gronde vir rasionalisering bestaan. Baie van die tariewe het nie ontstaan uit die gebruik van aanvaarbare berekeningsmetodes nie, maar was eerder die gevolg van individuele beleid en praktyke van utiliteite. Daar is 'n dringende behoefte om hierdie berekeningsmetodes in die toekoms te standardiseer. 'n Standaard metode mag die enigste manier wees om uiteindelik die duisende tariewe wat in die elektrisiteitsbedryf bestaan te rasionaliseer. Die regering het die belangrikheid dat tariewe in die toekoms koste reflekterend moet wees benadruk. Die enigste moontlike manier om hierdie doelwit te bereik, is om helder en duidelike metodes vir koste toedeling te bepaal vir gebruik deur die hele bedryf. Hierdie verhandeling beskryf 'n standaard metodologie om die koste te bepaal om verskillende klantegroepe in 'n elektrisiteitsverspreider van krag te voorsien. Die metodologie bied voldoende plooibaarheid om geen party aan arbeidintensiewe, kompleks en tydrowende kostebepalings te verbind nie. Dit vereis egter dat die koste van 'n verspreider noukeurig ondersoek word en dat alle funksies wat verrig word uitgelig word. Hierna word verwys as afbakening van kostes.

Thesis (MBA)--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / Climate change is one of the most serious issues the world is facing today. With an economic slowdown globally, huge food shortages and record-high fuel prices, it has never been so important for countries to guard their natural resources to ensure future sustainability. The South African energy generation industry, of approximately 40 000 Mega Watt (MW), consists largely (90%) of coal-fired power stations, with the remainder comprising of nuclear and pumped storage schemes which are regarded as environmentally neutral. It is only recently that Eskom and independent power producers (e.g. Darling Independent Power Producer Wind farm with an estimated 10 MW) embarked on utilising South Africa's natural resources to generate electrical power. South Africa's access to inexpensive coal and paid off coal-fired power stations has made it difficult to justify the investment in renewable energy. However, on 31 March 2009 South Africa became the first African country to introduce a feed-in-tariff for renewable energy (Gipe, 2009). The hope is that this initiative would stimulate the investment in green energy generation. Eskom and municipalities are currently the only entities that have licences from the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) to buy bulk electricity from power producers. The question therefore arises: if green electricity is more expensive to generate and is sold at a price premium to Eskom and municipalities, would they pass the premium on to consumers; can they differentiate the green electricity product and will consumers be willing to buy at a premium price? This research study aims to answer if businesses would be willing to pay a premium for green electricity, why they would be willing to buy it, which factors influence the purchasing decision and what barriers exist that will deter a purchase. A survey was conducted on businesses in the Western and Northern Cape of South Africa. The businesses sampled have a notified maximum demand of 50kVA or higher and excludes the re-distributor (City of Cape Town) customers. Approximately ten per cent of businesses would be willing buy green electricity. Most of these businesses have indicated that they are willing to pay a premium of five to nine per cent for green electricity. The businesses that are willing to pay the largest premiums (>10%) are in the electricity, gas, water, finance, insurance, real estate, business services, manufacturing, transport, storage and communications sector. Businesses that are willing to buy green electricity: • Have a strategy to reduce their carbon footprint; • Want to be community leaders (altruistic motivators); • Have as their biggest barrier the additional cost of green electricity; and • Feel that power utilities should be required to include a minimum percentage of green energy in their energy mix.

Thesis (MBA (Business Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The purpose of this study is to determine whether residential electricity consumers within the Cape Peninsula would be willing to voluntarily purchase green electricity if it is sold at a premium price. International experience in the field of green marketing shows that while niche markets for green electricity clearly existed, few programmes however exceeded a 5% penetration in the residential market. This study therefore methodologically drew on recent development in the literature of norm-motivated behaviour to identify testable factors that could influence residential consumers’ willingness to purchase premium-priced green electricity. After identifying these core testable factors, they were used to test various hypotheses. This was done through the testing of primary data that was collected through a telephone market survey of 405 respondents within the Cape Peninsula. These respondents were all identified as financial decision makers within their electricity consuming households. This study subsequently found that residential electricity consumers in the Cape Peninsula are very concerned about the future of the environment and that a large percentage of them (more than 40%) from almost all income levels might voluntary buy premium-priced green electricity. However, as it did identify that consumers must truly be convinced of the positive effects that green electricity would have on the environment before voluntarily supporting such a campaign, it found that consumers might not be well enough informed on environmental and climate change issues to ensure their actual support. To be at all successful, such a green electricity marketing campaign should be very informative and specifically focused on the positive effects that such a purchase would have on the environment. This study also found that supportive residential consumers would on average be willing to pay a maximum premium of 26% or approximately 15c/kWh. The combined maximum potential value of these premiums amount to R39 million per month. This serves as indication that there is much room for future development of the green electricity market. This study also identified that the majority of residential consumers believe that excessive users of electricity should be forced to make a larger financial contribution towards the generation of green electricity than low usage consumers. Based on its findings, the study closes with recommendations to role players in the green electricity market, i.e. the City of Cape Town Municipality, Darling Wind Farm and Eskom. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie is om te bepaal of residensiële elektrisiteitsverbruikers in die Kaapse Skiereiland gewillig sou wees om vrywilliglik groen elektrisiteit teen ’n premie aan te koop. Internasionale ervaring op die gebied van groen elektrisiteit het getoon dat, alhoewel daar verseker nismarkte vir groen elektrisiteit bestaan, baie min programme meer as 5% van die residensiële mark kon wen. Hierdie studie steun dus metodologies op onlangse verwikkelinge in die literatuur rakende normgemotiveerde gedrag om sodoende toetsbare faktore te identifiseer wat moontlik verbruikers se bereidwilligheid om groen elektrisiteit teen ’n premie te koop, kan verbeter. Na die identifisering van hierdie toetsbare faktore is hulle gebruik om verskeie hipoteses te toets. Dit is gedoen deur die toets van primêre data wat deur middel van telefoon-marknavorsing by 405 respondente binne die Kaapse Skiereiland ingesamel is. Hierdie respondente was almal geïdentifiseer as finansiële besluitnemers van huishoudings wat elektrisiteit gebruik. Hierdie studie het bevind dat residensiële elektrisiteitsverbruikers in die Kaapse Skiereiland baie besorg is oor die toekoms van die omgewing en dat ’n groot hoeveelheid van hierdie huishoudings (meer as 40%) van amper alle inkomstegroepe moontlik gewillig sou wees om groen elektrisiteit teen ’n premie aan te koop. Die studie het ook bevind dat omdat hierdie bereidwilligheid van die residensiële verbruikers onderhewig is aan hul oortuiging dat groen elektrisiteit ’n werklike positiewe effek op die omgewing uitoefen, residensiële verbruikers dalk huidiglik nie werklik goed genoeg ingelig is rakende omgewingsbewaring- en klimaatsveranderingskwessies nie. Hierdie gebrek aan kennis kan dus moontlik hul bereidwilligheid om groen elektrisiteit teen ’n premie aan te koop, negatief beïnvloed. Om suksesvol te wees sal groen elektrisiteit-bemarkingsveldtogte baie volledige inligting moet verskaf en sterk gefokus moet wees op die omgewingsvoordele wat die aankoop van groen elektrisiteit inhou. Die studie het ook bevind dat residensiële ondersteuners bereid sou wees om gemiddeld ’n maksimum premie van 26% of 15c/kWh te betaal. Die gesamentlike maksimum potensiële waarde van hierdie premies is R39 miljoen per maand wat daarop dui dat daar heelwat ruimte mag wees vir toekomstige uitbreiding van die mark vir groen elektrisiteit. Hierdie studie het ook geïdentifiseer dat die meerderheid residensiële elektrisiteitsverbruikers glo dat oormatige elektrisiteitsverbruikers gedwing moet word om ‘n groter finansiële bydrae tot die opwekking van groen elektrisiteit te maak as lae elektrisiteitsverbruikers. Gebaseer op die bevindinge van hierdie studie, sluit dit af met aanbevelings tot verskeie rolspelers in die mark vir groen elektrisiteit, soos die Kaapstadse Munisipaliteit, Darling Windplaas en Eskom.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The energy sector of the South African economy is poised to change in extraordinary ways. In just a few short years from now, the days will be gone when generators are guaranteed of their income and where regional distributors have the monopoly in the regions that they are servicing. Other energy markets in the world, such as oil and gas, have been free of regulation for many years. More recently, local policymakers have been focussing on increasing competition in the electricity sector and in so doing, liberate electric utilities from government's long established control. The shift away from government regulation of energy will lead to something even more important than placing downward pressure on the price of a MWh. It will instigate the development of multiple trading centres and platforms that are dedicated to competition in the free trade of electricity and related products. With the deregulation of the electricity supply industry and the inevitable introduction of competition, the real risks of energy trading will be faced by generators and distributors alike. This research investigates the changes that are set to occur within the next few years, based on developments that have unfolded in countries where electricity supply industries have been privatised and utilities and distributors are managing their risks in this new competitive environment. It explains how the South African Electricity Supply Industry may change with respect to the develop of markets which provide risk cover to industry players, the practices assumed by utilities in international electricity supply industries to minimise their risk exposure, and how industry players can use derivative instruments to manage their risks better. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die elektrisiteitsvoorsieningssektor is gereed om groot veranderings te maak. Binne 'n paar jaar, sal ons die einde sien van die dae waar kragstasies gewaarborg is van hulle inkomste en waar streeksvoorsieners die monopolie het in die streke waarin hulle verskaf. Ander energie markte in die wêreld, soos die van olie en natuurlike gas, is al sonder regulering vir baie jare. Meer onlangs het beleidsrade hul tyd toegewy aan die instelling van kompetisie in die elektrisiteitsvoorsieningssektor om utiliteitsmaatskappye vry te maak van staatsbeheer. Hierdie beweging weg van staatsbeheer sal lei na iets meer as net die afwaardse druk op die prys van 'n MWh. Dit sal die begin merk van die ontwikkeling van veelvoudige verhoë wat toegewyd is aan kompetisie in die vrye handel van elektrisiteit en soortgelyke produkte. Met die deregulering en die onvermydelike indiening van kompetisie, sal die ware risikos van energie handel aanvaar word deur voortbrengers en verskaffers van elektrisiteit. Hierdie navorsing stel ondersoek in die veranderings wat van plan is om te gebeur in die volgende paar jaar en is gebaseer op die ontwikkelinge wat in lande afgespeel het waar elektrisiteitsvoorsieningsnywerhede geprivatiseer is en waar voortbrengers en verskaffers van elektrisiteit hulle risikos bestuur in hierdie nuwe mededingende sektor. Dit verduidelik hoe die Suid-Afrikaanse elektrisiteitsvoorsieningsnywerheid mag verander teen opsigte van die ontwikkeling van markte wat risiko versekering aanbied vir utiliteitsmaatskappye, die praktyke wat deur hierdie spelers toegepas word om hulle blootstelling aan risikos te verminder, en ook hoe hulle afgeleide instrumente gebruik om hulle risikos beter te bestuur.

Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία θα μελετηθεί η συμπεριφορά των γραμμών Μέσης Τάσης (Διανομής), όταν αυτές πλήττονται από κεραυνούς είτε άμεσα είτε έμμεσα. Οι κεραυνοί είναι ένα φυσικό φαινόμενο με επικίνδυνες συνέπειες για την ασφάλεια των ανθρώπων, κτιρίων και ηλεκτρικών εγκαταστάσεων. Οι γραμμές του ηλεκτρικού δικτύου (είτε Υψηλής είτε Μέσης είτε Χαμηλής Τάσης) είναι ευάλωτες σε πλήγματα κεραυνών. Όταν ένας κεραυνός πλήξει άμεσα μια γραμμή ή το γειτονικό της έδαφος, τότε θα εμφανισθούν σφάλματα στο ηλεκτρικό δίκτυο υπό μορφή επικίνδυνων υπερτάσεων. Οι υπερτάσεις αυτές σε πολλές περιπτώσεις μπορεί να υπερβαίνουν την κρουστική τάση αντοχής της μόνωσης του δικτύου με αποτέλεσμα,αν δεν υπάρχουν διατάξεις προστασίας, να διασπαστεί το διάκενο προκαλώντας ανεπανόρθωτη ζημιά στον εξοπλισμό μας. Η μελέτη για τη συμπεριφορά των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής εμπεριέχει αρκετές προσεγγίσεις. Μερικές από αυτές αφορούν κάποιες βασικές παραμέτρους όπως, η πυκνότητα των κεραυνών στο έδαφος (GFD) και το πλήθος των άμεσων πληγμάτων στη γραμμή. Προκειμένου να εξάγουμε ασφαλή δεδομένα συμβουλευόμαστε τους αντίστοιχους μετεωρολογικούς πίνακες-χάρτες ( π.χ Ισοκεραυνικοί χάρτες). Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας παρουσιάζεται το φυσικό φαινόμενο του κεραυνού καθώς και τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά αυτού. Εξετάζονται τα είδη των κεραυνών και η εξομοίωση του σε εργαστηριακές συνθήκες μέσω κρουστικής τάσης για δοκιμές της αντοχής των μονώσεων. Στο δεύτερο κεφάλαιο γίνεται παρουσίαση της μορφής των συστημάτων ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας με ιδιαίτερη έμφαση στο σύστημα διανομής. Παρουσιάζεται η δομή του συστήματος διανομής , τα επιμέρους μέρη και εξαρτήματα από τα οποία αποτελείται καθώς και τα χαρακτηριστικά τους. Στο τέλος του κεφαλαίου παρουσιάζονται δεδομένα και στατιστικά του ελληνικού συστήματος διανομής. Στο τρίτο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται μια σντομη παρουσίαση των σφαλμάτων και υπερτάσεων που παρουσιάζονται στο σύστημα διανομής καθώς και των μέσω προστασίας που χρησιμοποιούμε προκειμένου να εξασφαλίσουμε την αδιάλειπτη λειτουργία και ακεραιότητα του συστήματος μας. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο, αναφέρεται η οδηγία της IEEE για τη συμπεριφορά των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας έναντι κεραυνών. Σκοπός είναι να παρουσιάσει εναλλακτικές λύσεις για τη μείωση των βραχυκυκλωμάτων που προκαλούνται από κεραυνό στις εναέριες γραμμές. Συγκεκριμένα θα προσδιορισθεί η συμπεριφορά των εναέριων γραμμών διανομής σε περίπτωση πτώσης κεραυνού (πλήγματα κεραυνών και βραχυκυκλώματα από επαγόμενη τάση), το επίπεδο μόνωσης των γραμμών διανομής, η προστασία των γραμμών διανομής με προστατευτικό αγωγό καθώς και η προστασία των γραμμών με αλεξικέραυνα. Στο πέμπτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας, θα αναπτυχθεί η καταγραφή σφαλμάτων και βλαβών λόγω πτώσεως κεραυνών στο δίκτυο Μέσης Τάσης, σε μετασχηματιστές καθώς και στις γραμμές διανομής Μ.Τ. τα τελευταία 6 χρόνια τουλάχιστον (2007-2012) στο νησί της Ρόδου. Θα υπολογισθεί αναλυτικά ο θεωρητικός αριθμός σφαλμάτων σύμφωνα με την οδηγία της IEEE και έπειτα θα συγκριθούν με τα πραγματικά σφάλματα που έχουμε προμηθευτεί από τη ΔΕΗ της Ρόδου με σκοπό την εξαγωγή των συμπερασμάτων μας. / This thesis studies the behavior of Medium Voltage (Distribution) lines, after direct or indirect lightning strokes. Lightning is a natural phenomenon with dangerous impacts for the safety of humans, buildings and electricity premises. The electricity network lines (either High, Medium or Low Voltage) are prone to lightning strikes. When a lightning directly strikes a line or its nearby ground, then faults occur at the power network in the form of risky overvoltage. Such overvoltage in many cases may exceed the shock impulse of the network's insulation resistance. In the event no safety arrangements are in place, this could lead to the gap breakdown, causing irreparable damage to our equipment. The study of the behavior of air distribution lines encompasses several approaches. Some concern the basic parameters, such as the ground flash density (GFD) and the number of direct strikes on the line. In order to reach safe data, we refer to the corresponding meteorological tables-maps (e.g. Lightning maps). The first section of the paper presents the natural phenomenon of the lightning and its main features. The types of lightning are reviewed and its simulation under laboratory conditions through shock impulse for the testing of the insulation resistance. The second section contains the presentation of the form of electric power systems, with special emphasis on the distribution system. It is a presentation of the distribution system structure, the individual parts and devices as well as their features. Data and statistics of the Greek distribution system are presented at the end of the section. The third section is a brief presentation of the faults and overvoltage occurring at the distribution system as well as of the protection measures we use in order to ensure the uninterrupted operation and the integrity of our system. The fourth section is a reference to the directive of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) on the behaviour of air power distribution lines against lightning. The purpose is to present alternative solutions for the decrease of short-circuit occurrences caused by lightning on overhead lines. More specifically, the behaviour of the overhead distribution lines is determined in the event of lightning strike (lightning strikes and short-circuits arising from the induced voltage), the level of insulation of the distribution lines, the protection of the distribution lines by employing a protective tube, as well as the protection of the lines using lightning rods. The fifth chapter of the paper is an elaboration of the faults recorded and the damages caused due to lightning strikes on the Medium Voltage network, on transformers as well as on M.V. distribution lines over the past 6 years at least (2007-2012) on Rhodes Island. The theoretical number of faults will be calculated in detail, based on the IEEE directive and then these faults will be compared to the real faults provided by Rhodes' DEI [Greek Public Power Corporation], in order to reach our conclusions.

本文以台灣股價加權指數，使用 AR(3)-GJR-GRACH(1,1) 模型，白噪音假設為 Normal 、 Skew-Normal 、 Student t 、 skew-t 、 EPD 、 SEPD 、與 AEPD 等七種分配。著重於兩個部份，(一) Student t 分配一族與 EPD 分配一族在模型配適與風險值估計的比較；(二) 預測風險值區分為低震盪與高震盪兩個區間，比較不同分配在兩區間預測風險值的差異。 實證分析顯示， t 分配一族與 EPD 分配一族配適的結果，無論是只考慮峰態 ( t 分配與 EPD 分配) ，或者加入影響偏態的參數 ( skew-t 分配與 SEPD 分配) ， t 分配一族的配適程度都較 EPD 分配一族為佳。更進一步考慮分配兩尾厚度不同的 AEPD 分配，配適結果為七種分配中最佳。 風險值的估計在低震盪的區間，常態分配與其他厚尾分配皆能通過回溯測試，採用厚尾分配效果不大；在高震盪的區間，左尾風險值回溯測試結果，常態分配與其他厚尾分配皆無法全數通過，但仍以 AEPD 分配為最佳。最後比較損失函數，左尾風險值估計以 AEPD 分配為最佳，右尾風險值則無一致的結果。因此我們認為 AEPD 分配可作為風險管理有用的工具。

No abstract available. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Master of Science / Department of Architectural Engineering and Construction Science / Fred Hasler / This paper discusses a brief history of electricity, specifically alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC), and how the current standard of AC distribution has been reached. DC power was first produced in 1800, but the shift to AC occurred in the 1880’s with the advent of the transformer. Because the decisions for distribution were made over 100 years ago, it could be time to rethink the standards of power distribution. Compared to traditional AC distribution, DC microgrids are significantly more energy efficient when implemented with distributed generation. Distributed generation, or on-site generation from photovoltaic panels, wind turbines, fuel cells, or microturbines, is more efficient when the power is transmitted by DC. DC generation, paired with the growing DC load profile, increases energy savings by utilizing DC architecture and eliminating wasteful conversions. Energy savings would result from a lower grid strain and more efficient utilization of the utility grid. DC distribution results in a more reliable electrical service due to short transmission distances, high service reliability when paired with on-site generation, and efficient storage. Occupant safety is a perceived concern with DC microgrids due to the lack of knowledge and familiarity in regards to these systems. However, with proper regulation and design standards, building occupants never encounter voltage higher than 24VDC, which is significantly safer than existing 120VAC in the United States. DC Microgrids have several disadvantages such as higher initial cost due, in part, to unfamiliarity of the system as well as a general lack of code recognition and efficiency metric recognition leading to difficult certification and code compliance. Case studies are cited in this paper to demonstrate energy reduction possibilities due to the lack of modeling ability in current energy analysis programs and demonstrated energy savings of approximately 20%. It was concluded that continued advancement in code development will come from pressure to increase energy efficiency. This pressure, paired with the standardization of a 24VDC plug and socket, will cause substantial increases in DC microgrid usage in the next 10 years.