The  purpose  of  this  paper  is to  examine  the  role  of  the  section  Private  right”  of  Kant’s Doctrine of Right.  I propose that the analysis of the external mine and thine”, which takes place in this section, has the function of proving that there is a kind of subjective right related to the possession of external objects of choice: the acquired rights. These rights, as well as the innate right, require for their effective exercise the foundation of a state legislated by the general will. / El propósito de este trabajo es ofrecer algunas consideraciones acerca del rol de la sección El derecho privado” de la Doctrina del derechode Kant. Se propone que el análisis de lo mío y tuyo exterior”, que tiene lugar en la sección en cuestión, tiene la función de mostrar que existe un tipo de derecho subjetivo vinculado con la posesión de objetos externos al arbitrio: los derechos adquiridos. Estos derechos, al igual que el derecho innato, exigen, para su ejercicio efectivo, la institución de un Estado legislado por la voluntad general.

L'efficacité caractérise tous les aspects du droit des contrats. De plus, elle semble avoir été toujours immanente à l'instrument contractuel, pouvant s'appréhender comme la véritable logique traversant toute l'évolution juridique du contrat pendant les siècles. Et notamment, d'après l'analyse des règles du Code Napoléon en matière de contrats, de la relative jurisprudence et également de la Réforme du droit des contrats du 2016, nous avons découvert deux formes de logique sous-entendues à l'efficacité, l'une subjective et l'autre objective. La théorie classique du contrat est dominée par une logique subjective de l'efficacité résultant de la volonté des parties. En effet, la magnificence de cette volonté règne presque sans partage, consacrée, d'ailleurs, par les principes fondamentaux d'intangibilité et de stabilité du contrat et glorifiée par le rôle très restreint du juge, qui est un simple et scrupuleux exécuteur de la volonté des parties. En revanche, l'affaiblissement du rôle de la volonté subjective a déterminé une recrudescence de l'efficacité objective, ouvrant la voie à une analyse plus globale du contrat qui intègre la subjectivité de la volonté dans l'objectivité de l'environnement socio-économique. Cette lecture nouvelle révèle une compréhension plus complexe et objective du contrat qui nous amène à l'étudier et à l'intégrer dans le milieu où il opère. Le contrat n'est donc plus tourné uniquement vers la subjectivité engendrée par les volontés puisqu'il considère également l'objectivité issue des enjeux extérieurs. / The effectiveness characterizes any and alI aspects of the law of contracts. Moreover, it seems to have been always so immanent in the contractual instrument that can be grasped as the real logic through all the legal evolution of the contract over many centuries. ln particular, from the analysis of the rules of the Code Napoléon on contracts, the related case law as welI as the Reforrn of the law of contracts enacted in 2016, we inferred two forms of logic underlying the contractual effectiveness, one subjective and the other objective. The classical theory of contract is dominated by a subjective logic of effectiveness resulting from the will of the parties. Indeed, the magnificence of this will reigns almost unfettered and, moreover, is sealed on the other band by the fundamental principles of the contract sanctity and stability and glorified by the very limited role of the judge, as a simple and scrupulous executor of the parties' will. Conversely, the weakening of the role of the subjective will has determined an increase of the objective effectiveness, paying the way for a more comprehensive analysis of the contract that incorporates the subjectivity of the parties' will into the objectivity of the socio-economic environrnent. This new line of interprelation reveals a more complex and objective understanding of the contract leading us to study and integrate it in the context where it operates. The con tract is then no longer turned only to subjectivity generated by the parties' will, since it also considers the objectivity deriving from environrnental eternal challenges.

Le problème foncier a été une question fondamentale tout au long de l’histoire chinoise. À la différence des systèmes juridiques occidentaux, la propriété privée foncière n’est jamais considérée ni comme un droit subjectif naturel, ni comme un droit absolu. À cela s’ajoute la contradiction entre l’économie de marché et l’idéologie socialiste. Le droit d’usage du terrain fut créé dans un contexte visant à favoriser le développement économique sans pour autant rompre avec l’idéologie socialiste. Ainsi, le droit d’usage du terrain et la propriété publique du terrain interagissent de façon inédite. Le droit d’usage du terrain se développe au rythme des besoins économiques. A la suite de l’amendement de la Constitution en 2004 qui consacre la protection de la propriété privée, la loi sur les droits réels de 2007 reconnaît explicitement la nature réelle du droit d’usage du terrain et protège également la propriété privée et la propriété publique. Il faut garder à l’esprit que la consécration juridique de cette nouvelle figure du droit foncier chinois soulève de nombreuses questions, tant sur un plan juridique que politique. Quelles sont les conséquences de la finance foncière du gouvernement ? Ne faut-il pas dresser le constat d’une ineffectivité de la protection du droit d’usage du terrain face à l’État ? Comment répondre aux insatisfactions des expropriés ? Toutes ces interrogations nous conduisent à penser que le droit d’usage est loin d’être un droit sacré ; il appelle une nouvelle réforme de grande ampleur : à notre sens, en effet, une réforme politique d’ensemble paraît à la fois nécessaire et inévitable. / The issue of ownership has been a fundamental question throughout Chinese history. Different from what has been established by western legal systems, the private ownership has never been considered as a subjective natural right , not an absolute right. In addition, there exists a contradiction between the market economy and the socialism. The land use right was created under the circumstances aiming to encourage economic development without breaking with the socialist ideology. Therefore, the land use right and the public ownership interact with each other in a very original way. The land use right develops along with the economic demands. In order to extend the protection to private ownership, the Chinese Constitution is amended in 2004. Accordingly, the Property Law of 2007 explicitly recognizes the very nature of the land use right, and offers equal protection to both private ownership and public ownership. It is important to keep in mind that the recognition of such new element in Chinese Property Law raises many legal questions as well as political ones. What are the consequences of governmental land finance? Is there a need to address the issue of ineffectiveness in the protection of land use right against the State? How to respond to the dissatisfaction of the private person whose property is expropriated? All these questions lead us to the conclusion that the land use right is still far from a sac red right. It requests a further extensive reform. In our view, a comprehensive political reform is both necessary and unavoidable.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:20:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Otacilio Pedro de Macedo.pdf: 5225799 bytes, checksum: 0b3da7583bd3221c26e73014d54213bd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-11-09 / This study intends to demonstrate how pressing it has become to provide religious organizations (i. e. churches at large) with a specific judicial regime. Even more pressing still with the void created by the the new Civil Code (sanctioned by law 10,406, from Jan. 10th,2002) disposing at item IV of article 44 that religious organizations are to be viewed as legal entities of private right, leaving out, however, the way such organizations should be controlled, an oversight not extended to foundations or other kinds of associations or societies. Unmindful that once classified as associations they would fall under the direct control of the State and consequently be deprived of privileges up to then granted, the churches hastened to gather Congress representatives committed to their cause and succeeded in palliating the impending risk by passing law 10,825 (Dec.22nd, 2003), which however failed once more to define what religious organizations should be understood as under the judicial point of view. The lack of a body of specific rules inherent in the exercise of such organizations hinders the natural flow of legal organs in the universe of legal activity, keeping open a gap that had better be filled as soon as possible in order that both rights and duties of churches may yield benefits to civil society and to the legal system. To this end the study made here expects to lead / Intenta o presente estudo demonstrar quão necessário se faz instituir um regime jurídico específico às organizações religiosas entendidas como igrejas. Tão mais premente é a necessidade diante da lacuna deixada pelo Novo Código Civil (aprovado pela Lei 10.406, de 10 de janeiro de 2002), que dispôs no inciso IV do art. 44 - serem as organizações religiosas pessoas jurídicas de direito privado, mas não se pronunciou sobre o modo de as reger, falha na qual não resvalou ao legislar sobre as associações, fundações e sociedades. Desatentas de que classificadas como associações ficariam sujeitas ao controle direto do Estado, vindo a perder privilégios até então assegurados, mobilizaram as igrejas seus líderes no Congresso e lograram afastar o risco iminente pela aprovação da Lei 10.825, de 22 de dezembro de 2003, lei, entretanto, que tampouco conceitua a noção de organizações religiosas sob o aspecto jurídico. A inexistência de um conjunto de regras específicas e inerentes à atividade de tais organizações empece o livre trânsito do ente jurídico no universo do direito, perpetuando uma lacuna que cumpre colmatar a fim de garantir que os direitos e deveres das igrejas gerem benefícios à sociedade em geral e ao próprio sistema legal. Nessa direção pretende colaborar o estudo aqui desenvolvido