This thesis examines if there is a relationship between competition time and team valuation, revenue and profitability in North American professional sport. The leagues examined were the major four in North America and include the National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, the National Hockey League and the National Football League. Using the Balanced Scorecard (BSC) as a guide, appropriate literature of the four BSC categories was reviewed. The four categories of the BSC include Financial, Customer, Internal Business Processes and Learning and Growth. Conceptual models for team valuation, revenue and profitability were constructed using the BSC as a framework. In order to construct the three conceptual models 51 professional sport research variables were identified as useful to this framework. The data was collected over a ten-year period for the seasons 2003/2004-2012/2013. A series of statistical analyses were examined with regression analyses revealed three distinct models for the three dependent variables. It was found that competition time has a significant impact on all three dependent variables. The results from this study will help league executives in creating new strategies for revenue growth and other financial gains. Future research will work towards creating more competition time variables that will aid in determining the proper amount of competition time that needs to be played by each league to maximize league finances.

Objective: In this dissertation the differences between NCAA athletes and other college students who participate in sports at various levels (i.e., club sports and intramural) were examined. The effects of different types of academic socialization received and the primary source of these messages on grade point average and professional sport expectations were also studied. The weekly hours spent on school and sports during the season and offseason were tested as potential mediators of the relationship between professional sport expectations and grade point average. Method: The sample consisted of 448 college students (NCAA = 122, Club = 104, Intramural = 119, No Sport = 103) ranging from age 18-25. Participants self-reported GPA, professional sport expectations, athletic identity, weekly time spent on school/sports during the season/offseason, academic attainment aspirations/expectations, academic involvement, educational encouragement, the value of education, and most influential socializer of academic messages. Results: NCAA athletes reported greater academic involvement by others, but had lower GPAs than the other students. They also reported academic counselors/mentors and parents/family as their two primary socializers, while students from the other groups indicated parents/family as their only primary source of socialization, as they relied on themselves second most. Also, weekly time spent on sports during the offseason was found to significantly mediate the negative relationship between professional sport expectations and grade point average. Conclusions: The academic experience of NCAA athletes is different from all other students on campus. Collaborating with others on campus to help athletes explore other avenues for future success can lead to less emphasis on playing a professional sport and more academic success. This would be beneficial considering so few NCAA athletes end up having successful pro sport careers. / text

Sports Science and Sports Medicine are becoming an inherent part of the landscape of high performance sports environments. Such is their visibility, that there are currently over 25,000 students training as sports scientists alone; a number greater than the other classical sciences combined. Through an ethnographic study of two professional rugby teams over the course of 12 months, it is shown that the ways in which these technologies and knowledge are deployed in the field differ substantially from their academic and philosophical basis. Drawing upon the work of Foucault, Goffman and Bourdieu, it is suggested that the use of science and technologies within the Medical and Strength and Conditioning departments alters in light of the physical location, the staff involved and the perceived attachment of these tools to higher order knowledge structures derived from beyond the immediate field of enquiry. Moreover, it is argued that the justification for the adoption of ‘science’ in these specific subcultural domains more often relates to social, political and operative means rather than the theoretical bases cited. A typology of use is presented in an effort to clarify the factors affecting the use of Sports Science and Sports Medicine in elite sport, and the implications that these have for the staff, athletes and serving knowledge bases. Notions of identity, surveillance and self governance are central in understanding the relative ease with which technologies of performance have managed to infiltrate the studied environments, and it is posited that similarities may exist in other cultures synonymous with elite sport. This is an ethnography of ‘science in action’.

L'objectif de cette thèse est de mettre en relation deux éléments caractéristiques des sports collectifs professionnels : la nomadisation croissante des carrières et la stratégie marketing des clubs qui tendent de plus en plus à devenir des marques. D'un point de vue théorique, cette recherche s'appuie, d'une part, sur la stratégie classique de marque et d'image qui, appliquée au club sportif professionnel, permet de définir le concept de « club marque » et, d'autre part, sur le courant des carrières nomades. Grâce au croisement de ces deux dimensions, émerge la question de l'influence de la stratégie de marque des clubs sportifs professionnels sur la volatilité des ressources humaines dans le sport spectacle. Emblématiques de ce dernier, le football et le rugby français constituent le terrain de la recherche. Deux cas sont étudiés : le FC Grenoble Rugby et l'Olympique Lyonnais. En recourant à une méthode qualitative et exploratoire (entretiens semi-directifs, analyse de contenu), les discours des acteurs des deux clubs choisis permettent de débattre des trois propositions de recherche, d'envisager les implications managériales à la fois pour le club et pour le joueur et, enfin, d'élaborer une typologie des joueurs nomades qui favorise l'appréhension du caractère subi ou voulu de la mobilité. / The object of the present thesis is to establish the relationship between two characteristic features of professional collective sports: namely the rise in boundaryless careers and marketing strategies in sports clubs which are increasingly becoming brands. From a theoretical point of view, the research is based on the one hand on traditional brand and image strategy which, when applied to professional sport clubs, outlines the concept of "brand-clubs", and, on the other, on the development of boundaryless careers. At the intersection of these two dimensions comes the question of what influence professional sports club marketing strategy has on the volatility of human resources in entertainment sports. French soccer and rugby, as illustrative examples, constitute the basis for the research through the following two case-studies : "FC Grenoble Rugby" and "Olympique Lyonnais". Applying both qualitative and exploratory methods (semi-directive interviews, content analysis) and drawing on the comments made by actors from both clubs, the three research proposals can be discussed, managerial implications for both club and players explored and a typology of boundaryless players developed in view of assessing the volontary or compulsory character of such mobility.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the use of social media (SM) as a relationship marketing tool (RM) in the context of professional sport in North America. The specific objectives are (i) to explore the use of social media in meeting relationship marketing goals within the context of professional sport, (ii) to explore how professional sport teams’ managers see the opportunities of social media in meeting relationship marketing goals, (iii) to explore how professional sport teams’ managers see the challenges of social media in meeting relationship marketing goals, and (iv) to examine the benefits of social media, if any, in enhancing long-term relationships with their favourite sport team from the perspective of fans of professional sport teams. Guided by a pragmatist philosophical worldview, the project adopted a multi-domain qualitative research approach. The multi-domain approach reflects the three data sources (i.e., the medium-SM platform, organization-professional teams, and consumers-sport fans). Putting an individual emphasis on each of these three data sources, three different but interrelated studies are conducted to accomplish the overall purpose of the dissertation using an article-based format. The first study, guided by the relationship marketing theoretical framework, adopted a netnographic method to investigate professional sport teams’ use of Twitter as an RM tool. Specifically, the study focused on the three core components of RM: communication, interaction, and value. The netnography is based on data gathered from the official Twitter account of 20 professional sport teams from the four major leagues from August 1, 2015 to February 29, 2016. Results outline seven emergent communication types, six interaction practices, and ten values (co)created by the teams or/and fans. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as impetus for future research are identified. The second study aimed at obtaining a first-hand and an in-depth understanding of the role, opportunities, and challenges of SM in meeting RM goals from the perspective of senior managers of professional sport teams. For this purpose, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 26 managers from the four major leagues professional sport teams in North America. Results outline the platforms adopted, six intended objectives, seven opportunities and seven challenges of SM as an RM medium. A list of theoretical and practical implications, and impetus for future research is provided. The purpose of the third study was to first gain an empirically supported understanding of the role and benefits of SM as an RM tool from the perspective of professional sport fans and, following that, to identify, specify, verify, and refine the emergent benefits. The study employed an adaptation of the focus group method, dubbed the ‘sequential funnel-based focus group’, which is a multiphase, step-wise version of the established method. The sequential funnel-based focus group is conceptualized, developed, described, and used in this work as a research method. The adaptation allowed the identification of benefits of SM as a medium that enhances long-term relationships through a series of funnel-based focus group discussions in three sequential phases. A total of 10 focus groups with 81 participants took part in the study. The work identified seven major benefits (and 15 sub-categories of benefits) that fans see as opportunities presented by SM as a medium to enhance long-term relationship with their team. Theoretical contributions, practical recommendations, and directions for future research are provided. The findings from the three studies are integrated to construct a multi-dimensionally informed and comprehensive understanding of the use of SM in RM in professional sport. In general, data gathered from the perspective of the three domains (i.e., medium/SM platform, organizational/ professional teams, and consumers/sport fans) informed that SM is providing new directions to RM, making it an effective and affordable channel in realizing RM goals in professional sport context. The thesis also produced empirical evidence of the opportunities that SM presents and the challenges that it poses in terms of meeting RM goals in the context of professional sport. Informed by the studies data, the dissertation also extended Grönroos’s (2004) RM process model through the lens of SM in professional sport context. Contributions to scholarship, practical recommendations, directions for future research, and the limitations of the dissertation are provided.

Coaches are constantly seeking more ecologically valid and reliable data to improve professional sporting performance. Using unobtrusive, valid and reliable mobile physiological monitoring devices may assist in achieving this aim. For example, there is limited information regarding professional fast bowlers in cricket and understanding this role during competitive in-match scenarios rather than in simulated bowling events could enhance coaching and physical conditioning practices. The BioharnessTM is a mobile monitoring device and assesses 5 variables (Heart rate [HR], Breathing frequency [BF], Accelerometry [ACC], Skin temperature [ST] and Posture [P]) simultaneously. Therefore, the aims of this research were to assess the effectiveness of the BioharnessTM mobile monitoring device during professional sporting performance using fast bowlers in cricket and this was to be achieved in five research studies. Study 1 presented the physiological profile of professional cricketers reporting fitness data with other comparable professional athletes, with a specific interest in fast bowlers who were to be the focus of this work. The 2nd and 3rd study assessed the reliability and validity of the BioharnessTM through controlled laboratory based assessment. For validity, strong relationships (r = .89 to .99, P < .01) were reported for HR, BF, ACC and P. Limits of Agreement reported HR (-3 ± 32 beat.min-1), BF (-3.5 ± 43.7 br.min-1) and P (0.2 ± 2.6o). ST established moderate relationships (-0.61 ± 1.98 oC; r =.76, P <.01). Reliability between subject data reported low Coefficient of Variation (CV) and strong correlations for ACC and P (CV < 7.6%; r = .99, P <.01). HR and BF (CV ~ 19.4%; r ~.70, P <.01) and ST (CV 3.7%; r = .61, P < .01), present more variable data. Intra and inter device data presented strong relationships (r > .89, P < .01, CV < 10.1%) for HR, ACC, P and ST. BF produced weaker data (r < .72, CV < 17.4%). Study 4 assessed reliability and validity of the BioharnessTM in a field based environment using an intermittent protocol. Precision of measurement reported good relationships (r = .61 to .67, P < .01) and large Limits of Agreement for HR (> 79.2 beat.min-1) and BF (> 54.7 br.min-1). ACC presented excellent precision (r = .94, P < .01). Results for HR (r = ~ .91, P < .01: CV <7.6%) and ACC (r > .97, P < .01; CV < 14.7%) suggested these variables are reliable in the field environment. BF presented more variable data (r = .46 - .61, P < .01; CV < 23.7%). In all studies, as velocity of movement increased (> 10 km.h-1) variables became more erroneous. HR and ACC were deemed as valid and reliable to be assessed during in-match sporting performance in study 5. This final study sought to utilise and assess the BioharnessTM device within professional cricket, assessing physiological responses of fast-medium bowlers within a competitive sporting environment, collected over three summer seasons. The BioharnessTM presented different physiological profiles for One Day (OD) and Multi Day (MD) cricket with higher mean HR (142 vs 137 beats.min-1, P < .05) and ACC (Peak acceleration (PkA) 227.6 vs 214.9 ct.episode-1, P < .01) values in the shorter match format. Differences in data for the varying match states of bowling (HR, 142 vs 137 beats.min-1, PkA 234.1 vs 226.6 ct.episode-1), between over (HR, 129 vs 120beats.min-1, PkA 136.4 vs 126.5 ct.episode-1) and fielding (115 vs 106 beats.min-1, PkA 1349.9 vs 356.1 ct.episode-1) were reported across OD and MD cricket. Therefore, this information suggests to the coach that the training regimes for fast bowlers should be specific for the different demands specific to the format of the game employed. Relationships between in-match BioharnessTM data and bowling performance were not clearly established due to the complexities of uncontrollable variables within competitive cricket. In conclusion, the BioharnessTM has demonstrated acceptable validity and reliability in the laboratory and the field setting for all variables (Heart rate, Breathing frequency, Accelerometry, Skin temperature and Posture) but with limitations for heart rate and breathing frequency at the more extreme levels of performance. Furthermore, taking these limitations into account it has successfully been utilised to assess performance and provide further insight into the physiological demands in the professional sport setting. Therefore, this work suggests that coaches and exercise scientists working together should seek to utilise new mobile monitoring technology to access unique insights in to sporting performance which may be unobtainable in the laboratory or a simulated field based event.

Since the late nineteenth century boxing in England has been socially organised into two ideologically distinctive versions - amateur and professional boxing – that to this day are practiced in spatially segregated social universes. Nonetheless, both amateur and professional boxing-practitioners understandings and lived experiences in and through boxing are necessarily grounded in the wider social and cultural contexts through which they interpret meaning and construct worldviews and identity. Thus despite the institutional, ideological and spatial boundaries demarcating either code, on a rather more subtle yet incredibly powerful cultural level, amateur and professional boxing are both symbolically and practically deeply intertwined. Over a five year period, I conducted ‘insider’ ethnographic research among distinct cohorts of amateur and professional boxers based in Luton and London to investigate the lived experiences and socially constructed worldviews, values and identities developed by practitioners immersed in either code. The overriding aim of this research was to critically evaluate the limits and possibilities of boxing-practitioners association with and development through ‘boxing’ henceforth. The findings of this ethnography reveal that it was common for the amateur and professional boxing-practitioners studied to cultivate empowering identities through intersubjective and socially validating instances of purposefulness, expressivity, creativity, fellowship and aspiration. These lived dimensions were grounded in sensuous, symbolic and emotional attachments respective to the social organization defining the social practice of either code of boxing. Equally, the research reveals that under the veneer of collective passion for and consequent fellowship experienced through boxing, an undercurrent yet ever-present sense of dubiety, tension and intra-personal conflict was in evidence among both the amateur and professional boxing-practitioners studied. It is suggested, therefore, that as a consequence of an array of both micro and macro post-industrial societal reconfigurations defining the structural principles of amateurism and professionalism in the practice of ‘boxing’, contemporary boxers are increasingly predisposed to developing athletic identities predisposed towards patterns of meaning production “…dominated by market-mediated consumer choice and the power of individualism” (Jarvie 2006 p. 327). Thus through complex, historically dynamic and seemingly paradoxical social processes of cultural (re)production and transformation - dialectically fusing individualistic aspirations geared towards self-interested gain, acts of group and subcultural fellowship and social resistance to measures of institutionalised control - it is argued that the role of boxing as an agent for humanistic personal and social development in the contemporary late-modern era of structural reconfiguration is progressively rendered impotent.

Contrary to many major sporting leagues such as the NHL, NFL, NBA, and MLB, or the Olympic Games as a whole, the professional tennis industry has not been individually scrutinized in terms of governance, social control, and surveillance practices. This thesis presents an in-depth account of the major governing bodies of the professional tennis circuit with the aim of examining how they govern, control, constrain, and practice surveillance on tennis athletes and their bodies. Foucault’s major theoretical concepts of disciplinary power, governmentality, and bio-power are found relevant today and can be enhanced by Rose’s ethico-politics model and Haggerty and Ericson’s surveillant assemblage. However, it is also shown how Foucault, Rose, and Haggerty and Ericson’s different accounts of “modes of governing” perpetuate sociological predicaments of professional tennis players within late capitalism. These modes of surveillance are founded on a meritocracy based on the ATP and WTA rankings systems. A player’s ranking affects how he or she is governed, surveilled, controlled, and even punished. Despite ostensibly promoting tennis athletes’ health protection and wellbeing, the systems of surveillance, governance, and control rely on a biased and capitalistically-driven meritocracy that actually jeopardizes athletes’ health and contributes to social class divisions, socio-economic inequalities, gender discrimination, and media pressure. Through the use of top-players’ accounts, it is also shown how some players resist certain governing, controlling, and surveillance practices designed for their benefit, while others understand and accept the resultant constraints as part of their choice to be a professional tennis player. / Thesis (Master, Sociology) -- Queen's University, 2013-11-12 09:25:44.284

This thesis comprises two stages that empirically investigate and evaluate the perceptions and importance of service elements expectations of professional baseball spectator in Taiwan. Study I is designed to collect the perception of spectators service elements expectations focus groups meetings, which also help the research to develop an appropriate research instrument for the evaluation of the importance of service elements expectations to Taiwan professional baseball spectators. Study II collected 1020 questionnaire survey samples and used cluster analysis approach to segment TPB spectators into six meaningful groups by service elements expectations. The thesis concludes that, firstly, the successful use of expectation to segment spectators proves the potential of expectation as a typology with which to categorise customers. Secondly, TPB spectators with different levels of team identification failed to have great differences in their service expectations, even though two service factors ( subsidiary services and social and educational services ) were evaluated as less important by respondents, they were still evaluated that six service expectation factors are all important to them. Finally, this study provided a different angle for sports organisers to consider, and an outline for assisting managers design service packages that are highly responsive to the target market.

Title: Evolution of Prize Money for the 1st places in selected sports Objectives: The main aim of this Master Thesis is to analyse evolution of prize money for winners in selected competitions and disciplines of golf, tennis, athletics and figure skating and prognosis of their evolution until 2020. Another goal is to compare the results of this prognosis and try to determine what influences the evolution. Methods: Methods used for prognosis of the future evolution are prognostic functions FORECAST and LOGLINTREND. Quality of prognosis is based on the Theil Index of Inequality. Trendline is also used to determine future evolution of the data. The correct trendline is chosen based on its reliability value. Results: Result of this theses is the discovery that prize money in history was progressively growing especially in traditional tournaments in tennis and golf. In younger series of competitions in figure skating and athletics prize money remained constant within the years. Prognosis suggests further increase in prize money in Grand Slam and Major tournaments and stagnation in Diamond League and ISU Grand Prix. Keywords: prize money, prognosis, professional sport, golf, tennis, athletics, figure skating