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The intervention in Libya is the best example to date to judge the implementation of the Responsibility to Protect. In 2011, public demonstrations started in Libya seeking political and economic reforms in the country. In return, the Libyan President Maummar Al-Qaddafi threatened mass atrocities in Libya. This allowed the UNSC to sanction the use of force against Qaddafi’s regime in order to protect civilians. First, under resolution 1970 (2011), the UNSC referred the case to the International Criminal Court and applied sanctions. Second, via resolution 1973 (2011), the application of force was approved for the express purpose of “protecting civilians.” This thesis assess whether the military intervention in Libya in 2011 was R2P case. This question is answered by an analysis based upon the UNSC’s Resolutions, Council’s proceedings, and other official documents. / May 2016

Armed conflict and violence against civilians in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has persisted for years starting in the 1990s. The Eastern, Western and North-Eastern parts of the country have seen the presence of a multiplicity of armed groups that have caused an escalation of the humanitarian crisis. The United Nations, in the interest of civilian protection, peacekeeping and security sector reform in the Democratic Republic of the Congo declared a mission under The United Nations Organisational Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC). In spite of this mission, civilians continued in the Congo to suffer attacks and to endure human rights abuses by the armed militants that are fighting government and the government forces in shape of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FARDC). This study examines the problematique of the mandate of MONUC in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in light of the challenges that have made its success debatable. The success of MONUC has become debatable in light of the fact that in spite of its presence and implementation in the DRC, between 2007 and 2010, conflict and the violence against civilians escalated to unprecedented levels. This study examines the causalities of the failure and observes its effect while making propositions towards amelioration of the challenges and the failure of the United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. / Political Sciences / M.A. (International Politics)

This research makes use of a Constructivist approach to norm development, in particular the concept of the norm life cycle, to assess the emergence and development of the responsibility to protect as a norm in international society in relation to the conduct of interventions on humanitarian grounds. This study finds that the responsibility to protect emerged relatively rapidly in international society as a norm relevant to the formulation and implementation of international responses to conflict situations characterised by the commission of atrocity crimes. Indeed, between 2001 and 2010, this study finds that the responsibility to protect norm became codified and entrenched in international organisation, and could therefore have been expected to influence state behaviour, and the discourse surrounding that behaviour, in relation to the conduct of interventions on humanitarian grounds. However, through an assessment of the application of the norm through the United Nations and the African Union to the conflicts in the Darfur region of Sudan from 2003 onwards, the study finds that the norm, while featuring relatively prominently in discourse surrounding Darfur between 2007 and 2008 in the United Nations, appears to have receded thereafter, disappearing from discourse by 2009 altogether, and appears not to have been useful to the attainment of its content goal, namely preventing or halting the commission of atrocity crimes, in the case of Darfur. Indeed, the norm may even have contributed to complicating, as opposed to facilitating, international engagement on Darfur. This study explores the apparent contradiction between the emergence and entrenchment of the responsibility to protect norm in international society at the same time as the norm appears to have increasingly faded from discourse surrounding international responses to the conflicts in Darfur, and assesses the implications of this both for the future development and utility of the norm, as well as for future responses to conflicts characterised by atrocity crimes on the African continent.

Many scholars perceive state sovereignty as absolute, inviolable, indivisible, final, binding and stagnant. That perception emanates from inter alia political, social, cultural and environmental contexts of the modern era. Most literature converge that the doctrine of sovereignty first received official codification at the Peace Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. Contemporary international norms, particularly the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine, are arguably an environment and culture of current global politics. With human rights and democracy having taken centre-stage in contemporary political discourses, sovereignty is affected and influenced by such developments in international politics. Hence the argument that globalisation, among others, has eroded, weakened and rendered the doctrine of sovereignty obsolete. This study, using Zimbabwe‟s Operation Murambatsvina as a case study, demonstrates that sovereignty is neither unitary in practice, nor sacrosanct; it is dynamic and evolves, thus, in need of constant reconfiguration. To this end, the study uses the qualitative research methodology. / Political Sciences / M.A. (International Politics)

Paragraphs 138 to 140 of the Outcome Document of the 2005 UN World Summit not only elevated the element of prevention to a prominent place within the principle of “responsibility to protect” (R2P), but also restricted the scope of R2P to four specific crimes under international law: genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. This thesis explores the conceptual and practical consequences of linking R2P to the concept of international crimes, with a particular focus on the preventive dimension of R2P, the socalled “responsibility to prevent”. To date, much of what has been written about the “responsibility to prevent” borrows primarily from conflict prevention theory and practice. Such conflict prevention inspired accounts of the “responsibility to prevent” tend to depict the principle as a long-term agenda that seeks to build societies resilient to atrocity crimes; that rests primarily on pillars one (state responsibility) and two (international assistance and capacity-building); that is supportive rather than undermining of state sovereignty; and that can largely adhere to the traditional conflict prevention principles of impartiality, consent, and minimal coercion should more direct prevention efforts become necessary. Drawing on literature from criminology, this thesis develops an international crimes framework for operationalizing the preventive dimension of R2P. The framework, combined with three case studies of international crime prevention (Bosnia 1991-1995; Kenya 2007-08; and Libya 2011), challenges key assumptions of the conflict prevention accounts, arguing that linking R2P to the concept of international crimes turns the “responsibility to prevent” into a principle that is more focused on the short-term, rather than on so-called root causes of atrocity crimes; more focused on individuals, rather than on state structures and capacity; more partial regarding perpetrators and victims; and more coercive, intrusive, and controversial than is commonly acknowledged in academic writing and policy debates on the subject. More broadly, the thesis concludes that taking R2P’s focus on the prevention of international crimes seriously requires re-rethinking the “responsibility to prevent” in important respects.

The aim of the work is to analyze the concepts of humanitarian intervention and responsibility to protect (R2P) with special emphasis on their development in the light of the ongoing Syrian crisis. The text follows the evolution of humanitarian intervention into R2P and introduces theoretical assumptions behind both concepts. It is argued that at the moment, R2P does not bring particularly novel concepts into the international law and can be generally described as a hybrid of legal, political and moral obligations. Consequently, the text includes a case study of the Syrian conflict and an evaluation of the way R2P has been applied during the crisis. Final section of the work is devoted to a suggestion of a new solution for R2P - responsibility while protecting.

Analysis of the breeding of higher primates in Czech zoos in terms of use for teaching at primary and secondary schools This thesis analyzes the breeding of higher primates in zoos in Czech and its use for teaching at primary and secondary schools. The theoretical part of the work deals with the history of zoological gardens, and features characteristics of higher primates bred in the Czech Republic and introduces the EAZA campaign to protect the apes. The research part is composed of the actual observation of zoos in the Czech Republic, the analysis of Internet resources and the rating of the zoos. The best zoos to teach about the higher primates were found the ZOO Plzeň and the ZOO Usti nad Labem. Keywords: zoo, higher primates, tutorial program, the EAZA campaign to protect apes

Este estudo buscou mapear Centros de Educação Ambiental (CEAs) de todas as regiões brasileiras com o objetivo de levantar subsídios para entender as origens desse movimento, quais suas interfaces com a literatura do ambientalismo e da educação ambiental brasileira; pontuar o que são os CEAs na atualidade, o que fazem, como e para quem; para propor quais as principais categorias de CEAs existentes no país, como eles dialogam com princípios-chave do movimento ambientalista e da educação ambiental; dentre outras características no tocante à temática dos CEAs na atualidade. Foram enviados dois questionários a uma base de dados de 500 instituições do campo da Educação Ambiental, retornando 101 respondidos por Centros de Educação Ambiental de 23 Unidades Federativas brasileiras. Esta foi a amostra trabalhada, o que possibilitou maior segurança nas discussões e análises tecidas. Concluiu-se que há uma diversidade de tipos de CEAs, sendo possível a proposição de oito classes, cada uma delas com foco de atuação distinto. Também se verificou e se experimentou a possibilidade de adoção de processos simples e complexos para a construção de classificações tipológicas para este tipo de iniciativas. Constatou-se um preocupante distanciamento entre o discurso e a prática dos CEAs no tocante a dois princípios-chave adotados - diálogo e participação. Há uma concepção simplificada do papel potencial que CEAs podem cumprir no cenário da educação ambiental brasileira. / This study looked for mapping the Environmental Education Centers (EEC’s) from all Brazilian regions aiming gathering assistance in order to understand the origins of this movement and which are its interfaces with the environmentalism and with the Brazilian environmental education literature. It also aimed defining the EEC’s nowadays, what, how and to whom they do it in order to propose which are the main categories of EEC’s in the country, how they relate to the main principles of the environmental movement and to the environmental education. Other features in relation to the EEC’s themes nowadays were also aimed. Two questionnaires were sent to the database of 500 institutions from the Environmental Education field. From this amount, 101 questionnaires answered by the Environmental Education Centers from 23 Brazilian Federative Units were sent back. This was the sample used in this work, making possible safer discussion and analyses. It is concluded that there is a diversity of types of EEC’s, being possible the proposition of eight classes, each one with a distinct focus. The possibility of adoption of simple and complex processes for the construction of a type classification for this kind of initiative was also verified and experimented. It was noticed a worrying distance between the speech and the practice of the EEC’s in relation to two key principles adopted - dialog and participation. There is a simplified conception of the potential role that the EEC’s can have on the Brazilian Environmental Education scenario.