Inicialmente, esta dissertação apresenta o marco teórico conceitual em que se situa a sociedade internacional contemporânea, as fontes tradicionais do direito internacional expostas no art. 38 do Estatuto da Corte Internacional de Justiça, as possíveis novas fontes do direito internacional atos unilaterais de Estados, atos de organizações internacionais e Soft Law. É abordado em seguida o paradigma da soberania decorrente da modificação da sociedade internacional. Os fundamentos da Responsabilidade de Proteger (R2P) são levados a uma análise sob as diversas fontes do direito internacional. A R2P não se verifica como fonte autônoma do direito internacional nos princípios gerais de direitos, nas convenções internacionais e nos meios auxiliares da doutrina e da jurisprudência. Todavia, seu enquadramento é feito em duas teorias: branda e dinâmica. Em razão de seu caráter de formação de opinio juris e da prática reiterada, a teoria branda considera a R2P uma manifestação do costume internacional. Enquanto isso, a teoria dinâmica leva em consideração a evolução do direito internacional contemporâneo, que considera a Soft Law uma fonte autônoma, bem como as manifestações da R2P. Conclui-se, então, que a teoria da R2P está sedimentada nas fontes do direito internacional contemporâneo e clássico. / Firstly this thesis presents the conceptual framework in which lies the contemporary international society, the traditional sources of International Law - exposed in art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, the possible new sources of International Law - unilateral acts of States, international organizations and acts of Soft Law. Then, it brings forward the paradigm of sovereignty resulting from the modification of the international society. The foundations of the Responsibility to Protect are subject to an analysis emphasizing the variety of International Law sources. The R2P is not embraced as an autonomous source of International Law in the general principles, international conventions, doctrine and jurisprudence. However, its framing is analyzed in this thesis with two theories: \"mild\" and \"dynamic\". Considering the formation of opinio juris and the repeated practice, the mild theory considers R2P as a manifestation of international custom. Meanwhile, the dynamic theory takes into account the evolution of contemporary International Law, which considers Soft Law as an autonomous source, as well as the manifestations of R2P. So the conclusion is that the theory of R2P is based in the sources of contemporary and classic International Law.

Este trabalho teve, como objetivo, quantificar o rendimento, as características quantitativas e qualitativas de interesse econômico do meloeiro, analisando também a distribuição espacial da água e de íons fertilizantes (nitrato e potássio) no sistema radicular da planta, em dois tipos de solo: Latossolo Vermelho Amarelo (franco-arenoso) e Argissolo Vermelho (argiloso), submetidos aos efeitos do "mulching", em condições de gotejamento superficial e subsuperficial (0,20 e 0,40 m de profundidade). O ensaio foi conduzido na área experimental do Departamento de Engenharia Rural da Escola Superior de Agricultura "Luiz de Queiroz" – ESALQ/USP, em uma área protegida de 330 m2 (22,0 m x 15 m), localizada no município de Piracicaba, SP. Os experimentos foram conduzidos no delineamento em blocos casualizados, com 4 blocos cada, com o arranjo dos tratamentos em fatorial 2 x 3 (6 tratamentos), com a combinação das variáveis "mulching" plástico e profundidade de gotejamento, totalizando 24 parcelas experimentais em cada solo. O monitoramento da umidade foi realizado com tensiômetros de punção e a concentração de nitrato, potássio, pH e condutividade elétrica através de extratores de solução do solo, instalados nas profundidades de 0,15, 0,30 e 0,50 m da superfície do solo, e nas distâncias do gotejador de 0,10, 0,20, 0,30 e 0,40 m. Foram coletadas, ainda, amostras de solo nas profundidades de 0,04, 0,08 e 0,12 m e nas mesmas distâncias do emissor, para o mesmo monitoramento. Foram realizadas análises de pH e de condutividade elétrica do solo nas mesmas posições. O uso do "mulching" incrementou a altura da planta, o diâmetro de colo, a massa média de fruto, a produção por planta, o diâmetro longitudinal e a espessura de polpa, nos solos franco-arenoso e argiloso, além do diâmetro transversal, da relação de formato do fruto, dos sólidos solúveis totais e do pH, no solo argiloso. A profundidade de gotejo a 0,20 m da superfície do solo proporcionou maiores valores médios de massa do fruto e de produção por planta, no solo arenoso, e influenciou o pH do fruto, no solo argiloso. Não foi possível observar efeito dos tratamentos na distribuição de nitrato nos solos franco-arenoso e argiloso, devido a sua complexa dinâmica no solo. A profundidade de gotejo a 0,20 m da superfície do solo e sem "mulching" disponibilizou mais íons potássio à zona de absorção das raízes do meloeiro no solo franco-arenoso, dos 47 DAT aos 63 DAT, período que compreendeu desde o início do florescimento até a fase inicial de frutificação da cultura. Para o solo argiloso, o efeito do "mulching" foi mais evidente na distribuição de íons potássio ao redor da zona radicular do que na profundidade de gotejo. Em ambos os solos, nas caixas sem "mulching", o tratamento com gotejo à 0,20 m da superfície apresentou maior produtividade da água, quando comparado aos demais tratamentos que utilizaram gotejo à superfície e a 0,40 m. / This work aims to quantify melon yield, quantitative and qualitative aspects, as well to observe water and ions distribution (nitrate and potassium) in the root zone for two soils: Yellow Red Latossol (Sandy loam soil) and Red Argissol (Clay soil), under plastic mulching and subsurface drip irrigation (0.20 m and 0.40 m from the soil surface). Melon cycle occurred between november, 2005 until january, 2006. The research site was a greenhouse (330 m2) located at the University of São Paulo (ESALQ/USP), Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil. The experimental design was four randomized complete blocks. The treatments were comprised of 24 experimental units for each soil. Soil moisture evaluated by tensiometric batteries, and the nitrate, potassium, pH and EC values by soil solution based on extractors of ceramic capsules disposal at depths of 0.10 m, 0.30 m, and 0.50 m and horizontal distances of 0.10 m, 0.20 m, 0.30 m and 0.40 from the plant, and by soil sampling as shallow depths of 0.04 m, 0.08 m, and 0.12 m at the same horizontal distances from the plant. The plastic mulching increased the height plant, stem diameter, plant production, longitudinal diameter and pulp thickness of the fruit for the sandy loam and clay soil, and transversal diameter, format of the fruit, soluble solids levels and pH of the fruit for the clay soil. The subsurface drip irrigation at 0.20 m from the surface soil provided larger fruit average mass and plant production to sandy loam soil and make influence in pH of the fruit to clay soil. It was not possible to find treatments effects for the nitrate distribution at sandy loam and clay soils due the complex nitrate dynamics in the soil. The subsurface drip irrigation at 0.20 m and without plastic mulching made available more potassium concentration at the melon root absorption zone for the sandy loam soil, from 47 and 63 days after planting, when the blooming started until to frutification period. To clay soil the mulching effect was more evident at the potassium distribution than the subsurface drip irrigation. For both soils, without mulching, subsurface drip irrigation at 0.20 m showed larger water productivity compared to 0.40 m and surface drip irrigation treatments.

La responsabilité internationale est un ensemble de conséquences liées à laviolation des obligations internationales, soit le lien juridique par lequel un sujet de droitinternational est tenu, envers un ou plusieurs autres sujets, d’adopter un comportementdéterminé ou de s’en abstenir. S’il y a un comportement illicite, la Communautéinternationale peut intervenir, c’est ce que l’on dénomme souvent « droit d’ingérence ». Cedernier a évolué récemment vers une nouvelle terminologie introduite dans le rapport de laCIISE : « responsabilité de protéger ». C’est un concept selon lequel les Etats souverains ontl’obligation de protéger leurs propres populations contre des catastrophes de grande ampleur.Dans la dynamique du dépassement de l’antagonisme entre souveraineté et intervention, nousanalyserons le comportement de la Communauté internationale face à la « responsabilité deprotéger », le rôle qui lui incombe lorsque l’Etat faillit à ses obligations. Au-delà de cesauteurs, il reste encore à définir quels sont les bénéficiaires de cette protection, sa mise enœuvre et ses limites. Si la notion de « responsabilité de protéger » ne constitue pas seulementune nouvelle terminologie, garantit-t-elle un degré de protection plus élevé par rapport au« droit d’ingérence ». / International responsibility is a set of consequences connected to the violation ofinternational obligations, this being the legal ties which bind a subject of international law toadopt a defined way of behaving towards another or others or to abstain. If there is illicitconduct the International Community can intervene, which is often named “right ofintervention”. The latter hasrecently developeda new terminology introduced in the (ICISS)report: “responsibility to protect”. It is a concept according to which the sovereign states havethe obligation to protect their own populations against large-scale catastrophes.From theperspective of going beyond the opposition between sovereignty and intervention we willanalyse the behaviour of the International Community faced with the “responsibility toprotect”, its incumbent role when the state fails in its obligations.Aside from its creators itremains to be seen who will benefit from this protection, its implementation and its limits. Ifthe notion of the “responsibility to protect” not only constitutes new terminology, does itchange an issue already raised by the “right of intervention”: military deployment with aimswhich are not purely military?

La compensation de l'absence ou de la réduction du revenu du travail résultant des risques sociaux auxquels sont exposés les membres de la communauté des Etats UEMOA connaît des limites. Par rapport aux normes de l'Organisation Internationale du Travail, les régimes de sécurité sociale qui s'inspirent de l'ensemble des dispositions législatives, réglementaires et conventionnelles destinées à l'exclusion du chômage à protéger l'individu, sont calqués sur le modèle européen. Le système de sécurité sociale lié au développement du salariat étant le fondement de la norme minima. La convention n°102 ratifiée par deux Etats sur les huit de l'UEMOA, le Niger et le Sénégal, sous le bénéfice de dérogations, l'acceptation d'au moins trois éventualités est malencontreusement reprise du point de vue conceptuel, par la convention CIPRES, censée harmoniser les législations de sécurité sociale d'Etats africains, alors que se développe actuellement une nouvelle notion du travailleur qui ne se limite plus simplement aux salariés, notion qui a une acception juridique plus restreinte. La conséquence est que les droits nationaux, très en deçà des normes internationales deviennent également inadaptés. Du point de vue du champ d'application personnel, le problème de la couverture se pose avec d'autant plus d'acuité que les possibilités d'une extension constituent un obstacle quasi insurmontable. Les Etats pris isolément ne peuvent à eux seuls venir à bout des limites liées à leur niveau de développement. De nombreuses solutions pour l'extension du droit à la sécurité sociale ont été expérimentées à travers le monde. Elles offrent un kaléidoscope de modèles s'organisant autour des institutions de prévoyance et mutuelles sociales ou de l'assistance. Mais la considération du respect de la dignité de la personne qui inspire notamment le droit à une couverture sociale impose de considérer que l'extension de la sécurité sociale à ceux qui en sont dépourvus nécessite l'action concertée des Etats UEMOA qui se fonde sur l'éthique professionnelle non «par le rattrapage industriel», mais par un retour à l'étape brûlée, le secteur primaire, seul à même de pouvoir sous-tendre «un nouveau socle de sécurité sociale». / The compensation of the absence or the reduction of the earned income resulting from social risks to which are exposed the members of the community of States UEMOA knows limits. With regard to the standards of the International Labor Organization, the national insurance schemes which are inspired by the laws, statutory and conventional measures as a whole intended with the exception of the unemployment to protect the individual, are traced on the European model. The system of social security connected to the development of the wage-earner being the foundation of the minimum standard. The convention n°102 ratified by two States on eight of the UEMOA, Niger and Senegal, under the profit of dispensations, the acceptance of at least three eventualities is inconveniently taken back by the convention CIPRES, supposed to harmonize the legislations of social security of African States, while develops at present a new notion of the worker which does not limit itself any more simply to the employees, the notion which has a more restricted legal meaning. The consequence is that the national laws, very below international standards become also unsuitable. From the point of view of the personal field of application, the problem of the cover settles with all the more acuteness as the possibilities of an extension constitute an almost insuperable obstacle. States taken remotely cannot to them come only at the end of the limits connected to their level of development. Numerous solutions for the extension of the right of the Social Security were worldwide experimented. They offer a kaleidoscope of models getting organized around the institutions of foresight and social mutual insurance or the assistance. But the consideration of the respect for the dignity of the person which inspires in particular the right for a social coverage imposes to consider that the extension of the Social Security to those who lack it requires the joint action of States UEMOA which bases itself on the professional ethics not "by the industrial catching up", but by return in the missed stage, the primary, only sector to be able to underlie "a new social protect floor".

Topic of this thesis is the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) doctrine that has become very current at the present time because of its use in legitimising the operation of NATO and other countries during the uprising in Libya in 2011. Apart from a number of sympathetic opinions, it has caused a wave critique, which has been of two types. Some criticised even the fact itself that the UN Security Council had labelled the Libya situation as a case suited for the application of this doctrine. There were also those who had agreed wholeheartedly with this designation, but who were disappointed by how the operation that followed had proceeded. This section of critics claims that NATO and other states that took part in the operation overstepped the mandate granted to them by the Security Council and thereby caused at least a partial delegitimising of R2P.

By agreeing to The Responsibility to Protect doctrine (R2P) at the United Nations World Summit in 2005, and later adopting a resolution reaffirming the support, the Russian federation accepted a responsibility of the international community to protect populations of other states, if the state itself manifestly fails to protect its own populations. However, Russia has acted in an inconsistent way by exercising its commitment to the R2P principle occasionally. The purpose of this study is to give an answer to the question of why Russia has acted in an inconsistent way to The Responsibility to Protect doctrine. Analyzing the inconsistency puzzle through the realist, liberal and constructivist lens, questioning why Russia has accepted an R2P intervention regarding Libya to halt ongoing mass atrocities, but repeatedly has vetoed against R2P interventions regarding Syria and recently regarding Venezuela, the study concludes that a combination of the three approaches is needed to explain and understand Russia’s inconsistent reaction. Second, it concludes that Russia acted inconsistently because President Medvedev was affected by, and agreeing with, international norms, thereby accepting an R2P into Libya, while President Putin was affected by, and wanted to hold on to the Russian identity. By rejecting R2P interventions in the Syria and Venezuela cases, Putin thereby secured Russian national interests, using a liberal narrative as a pretext for the actions.

The main aim of the master thesis titled "Syria and the concept responsibility to assist: new approach towards conflict resolution?" is to find out whether the extension of the doctrine of responsibility to protect by the concept of responsibility to assist that is based on the support of nonviolent movements could work as a new approach towards conflict resolution and thanks to this it could constitute another way of international assistance and civilian protection in cases when it is the regime that perpetrates the violence against its own population. For this reason the thesis, via the Syrian civil war that offers wide range of internal responses to the violence perpetrated by the regime against civilians, focuses on three different forms of international involvement and assistance. These are the international military intervention under the third pillar of R2P, the backing of domestic violent groups and insurgents and last but not least the assistance to nonviolent movements and civil initiatives in the form of R2A as a potential expansion of the second pillar under the R2P doctrine. These approaches are analyzed with regard to the issues of state sovereignty and moral responsibility to protect civilians that arises from the inconsistency of these two aspects in relation to any kind of...

The topic of this master thesis is the Relationship of the Federal Republic of Germany to the intervention in Libya. The aim of this master thesis is to answer the research question: "Why did not Germany support the intervention in Libya?". After the abstention on the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, Germany was for not continuing human rights protection. The decision, to reject the intervention, has confirmed that Germany is still very skeptical regarding the involvement of its military personnel and assets abroad. The decision of the Security Council is not only a milestone in German history, but also a milestone for the international community. For the first time has the United Nations Security Council agreed to use military forces against a functioning state with the aim of protecting civilian population. This master thesis is a single case study; through which the author examines a very specific situation when Germany decided not to participate in the voting process regarding the intervention in Libya. The theoretical part of the thesis is based on the constructivist theory, furthermore the thesis focuses also on the concepts of civilian power, multilateralism, culture of restraint, and the protection of human rights. All these terms have significant influence on German foreign...

The purpose of this study is to examine why the US is involved in Yemen’s civil war and what factors are contributing to its involvement, particularly if the US involvement in Yemen is based on self-interest or humanitarian motives. As a qualitive desk study, this research uses rational choice theory and the humanitarian intervention framework as its analytical framework.The research results highlight that the US objectives are first and foremost following an “America first” approach, with specific economic and political benefits, such as maintaining a good bilateral relationship with Saudi Arabia, arms sales and the purchase of oil which are clearly prioritized over humanitarian aspects to protect the civilians in Yemen.

The aim of this study is to evaluate the United Nations (UN) role in the resolution, management and termination of the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) with specific reference to the UN Organisation Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC). The aim emanates from the basic research question: To what extent did the deployment of MONUC contribute to the termination of internal conflict in the DRC and create conditions conducive for the holding of democratic elections? The research problem generated four subsidiary questions: Was the intention of the drafters of the Lusaka Agreement for the UN converted into a viable peacekeeping mission, especially in the early phases of the mission? Did MONUC receive adequate resources to fulfil its task, commensurate with the size and complexity of the operational theatre and its mandate? Why was a development such as the deployment of Interim Emergency Multi National Force (IEMF) in Ituri (2003) necessary, given the fact that MONUC was deployed? Were the expectations regarding MONUC involvement in the disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration, resettlement and repatriation (DDRRR) programme and the domestic disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration (DDR) programme realistic? Therefore four sub-problems were addressed, namely the issue of the mission mandate; the resourcing of the mission relative to the mandate and the operational theatre; the external augmentation of the mission; and the MONUC role in DDRRR and DDR. Following a definition of the concept internal conflict and a discussion of the factors contributing to internal conflict, the theory of peacekeeping was described to determine a framework for the evaluation of the UN peace mission in the DRC, based on the recommendations of the 2000 Brahimi Report. Emphasis was placed on the mandate, force levels and composition, and operational capability. A historic overview contextualised the complex conflict situation in the DRC that the UN was required to help ameliorate. MONUC made a contribution to the termination of internal conflict in the DRC by managing the conflict in a fashion that permitted democratic elections to be held. This was achieved despite the fact that the actual deployment of MONUC (in terms of its functioning, especially regarding DDRRR) did not meet the requirements for a UN force as envisaged by the signatories of the 1999 Lusaka Agreement. The expectations of the signatories regarding DDRRR were not realistic, but the UN response in terms of the mandate and allocation of resources also fell far below what was required to establish a credible UN peace mission. The graduated approach ensured a reactive MONUC posture in the field, but the reticence to provide adequate resources in response to political and operational developments necessitated the external augmentation of the mission on two occasions. While this development brought a new facet of ‘co-deployment’ in UN peacekeeping operations to he fore, it also served to highlight the MONUC deficiencies in terms of its ‘responsibility to protect’ civilians under threat of violence. MONUC was mandated from its inception to discharge this responsibility, without receiving the necessary resources to enable the conduct of operations to protect civilians. This inability resulted in the mission lacking credibility amongst the population of the DRC. Copyright / Dissertation (MSS)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Political Sciences / MSS / Unrestricted