Telomerase is a ribonucleoprotein complex that catalyses telomeric repeat addition at the ends of chromosomes. The catalytic subunit, hTERT, acts as a key determinant for telomerase activity control; the induction of hTERT expression is required for telomerase activity. hTERT participates in cellular immortalization and is elevated in certain malignant tissues. Several tumours exhibit telomerase activity, which contributes to the infinite proliferation capacity that promotes tumour progression. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) represents 2% of all adult malignancies and has a high mortality rate. The WHO classifies RCC into several sub-types based on cytogenetic aberrations and morphological features; the most prevalent sub-types are clear cell (ccRCC), papillary (pRCC), and chromophobe RCC (chRCC). The aims of this thesis were to study the expression patterns of various signalling molecules, to elucidate the functional links among them, and to define the roles of these signalling molecules in the regulation of hTERT gene expression and telomerase activity in RCC. The first paper included in this thesis revealed mRNA overexpression of DJ-1 (a PTEN inhibitor), cMyc, and hTERT in clinical ccRCC samples compared to tumour-free kidney cortex tissues. Significant, positive correlations were detected for DJ-1, cMyc, and hTERT mRNA levels in ccRCC, but not in pRCC. In vitro knockdown of DJ-1 by siRNA in ccRCC cells induced downregulation of p-Akt, cMyc, hTERT, and telomerase activity. Forced overexpression of DJ-1 in an ovarian carcinoma cell line was followed by increased hTERT promoter activity, which appeared to be dependent on cMYC binding to the promoter. Collectively, the in vitro studies verified a functional link among DJ-1, cMyc, and hTERT as implied in the clinical ccRCC samples. The second paper included in this thesis demonstrated overexpression of NBS1 mRNA levels in ccRCC compared to the kidney cortex. NBS1 mRNA levels exhibited significant, positive correlations with DJ-1, cMyc, and S phase, but not with hTERT. In vitro experiments suggested that DJ-1 could regulate NBS1 gene expression. The role of the hTERT transcriptional repressor WT1 in RCC was evaluated in the third paper included in this thesis. ccRCC samples displayed low WT1 mRNA levels compared to kidney cortex samples. Interestingly, WT1 expression was negatively associated with hTERT and cMyc both of which were elevated in ccRCC. Forced overexpression of WT1 isoforms in a ccRCC cell line increased the expression of several negative transcriptional regulators of hTERT and diminished the expression of hTERT positive regulators. In consequence, hTERT mRNA levels and telomerase activity were reduced. Chromatin immunoprecipitation verified direct binding of WT1 to the cMyc, Smad3, and hTERT promoters. Taken together, these data suggested that in ccRCC, WT1 affects hTERT at the transcriptional level via a combined effect on both positive and negative regulators. In conclusion, DJ-1 can regulate hTERT and telomerase activity through the PI3K pathway encompassing PTEN, NBS1, p-Akt, and cMyc in ccRCC, but not in pRCC. WT1 negatively regulates hTERT and telomerase activity directly and indirectly through multiple pathways in ccRCC.

PI3K signaling in pancreatic β cells has been shown to be important in modulating β cell mass and function under basal condition. Evidence suggests that a specific group of insulin promoter-expressing neurons also modulates glucose metabolism and energy homeostasis through their PI3K signaling. Thus we hypothesize that PI3K activation via PTEN deletion under the control of rat insulin promoter (RIP) in pancreatic β cells and RIP-expressing neurons will protect against hyperglycemia and diabetes in experimentally induced mouse models of type 2 diabetes. In Chapter IV, we showed that RIP-mediated PTEN deletion in pancreatic β cells led to PI3K activation and subsequent increased β cell mass and function, thus protected the mice from high fat diet (HFD)-induced diabetes. Furthermore in the absence of global leptin signaling, β cell-specific PTEN deletion maintained β cell function in the setting of severe insulin resistance, therefore prevented diabetes development. Interestingly, RIP-mediated PTEN deletion also resulted in increased peripheral insulin sensitivity due to PI3K activation in central nervous system. In Chapter V, we showed this increased insulin sensitivity was maintained after HFD feeding, which also contributed to the protection against diabetes. These mice also showed increased visceral adipogenesis and subcutaneous adiposity on HFD, which were dramatically attenuated in the absence of leptin signaling, indicated the essential role of peripheral leptin action in mediating the insulin sensitive phenotype from neuronal RIP PTEN deletion. Finally, we demonstrated that the insulin sensitizing phenotype in these mice was not mediated through ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei (VMH), such that VMH-specific PTEN deletion did not alter energy homeostasis or glucose metabolism. Together, the data from this thesis points to an inhibitory role of PTEN in both central nervous system and pancreatic β cells in glycemic control. Therefore, PTEN may represent a potential target for diabetes prevention and treatment.

PI3K signaling in pancreatic β cells has been shown to be important in modulating β cell mass and function under basal condition. Evidence suggests that a specific group of insulin promoter-expressing neurons also modulates glucose metabolism and energy homeostasis through their PI3K signaling. Thus we hypothesize that PI3K activation via PTEN deletion under the control of rat insulin promoter (RIP) in pancreatic β cells and RIP-expressing neurons will protect against hyperglycemia and diabetes in experimentally induced mouse models of type 2 diabetes. In Chapter IV, we showed that RIP-mediated PTEN deletion in pancreatic β cells led to PI3K activation and subsequent increased β cell mass and function, thus protected the mice from high fat diet (HFD)-induced diabetes. Furthermore in the absence of global leptin signaling, β cell-specific PTEN deletion maintained β cell function in the setting of severe insulin resistance, therefore prevented diabetes development. Interestingly, RIP-mediated PTEN deletion also resulted in increased peripheral insulin sensitivity due to PI3K activation in central nervous system. In Chapter V, we showed this increased insulin sensitivity was maintained after HFD feeding, which also contributed to the protection against diabetes. These mice also showed increased visceral adipogenesis and subcutaneous adiposity on HFD, which were dramatically attenuated in the absence of leptin signaling, indicated the essential role of peripheral leptin action in mediating the insulin sensitive phenotype from neuronal RIP PTEN deletion. Finally, we demonstrated that the insulin sensitizing phenotype in these mice was not mediated through ventromedial hypothalamic nuclei (VMH), such that VMH-specific PTEN deletion did not alter energy homeostasis or glucose metabolism. Together, the data from this thesis points to an inhibitory role of PTEN in both central nervous system and pancreatic β cells in glycemic control. Therefore, PTEN may represent a potential target for diabetes prevention and treatment.

Purpose: To determine the expressions of bcl-2, p53, Ki-67 and PTEN on the basis of immunohistochemistry methods in upper urinary transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), and to correlate their presentations in specimens with clinical tumor stage, grade and patient survival. Material and Method: Paraffin-embedded primary upper urinary TCC specimens were divided into 2 groups for immunohistochemical study: Group 1 including 91 cases were treated with bcl-2, p53 and Ki-67 antibodies; group 2 including 93 specimens contained both tumor and benign tissues were treated with PTEN antibody. Semi- quantitatively, according to the amount of the stained cells, they were divided into 3 levels: level 1, scanty; level 2, focal; and level 3, diffuse. Association of immunoreactivity with tumor grade and stage was examined. Prognostic significance of tumor marker expression in patients¡¦ survival was accessed. Results: Group1: Of the 91 tumors most (98.9%) of the specimens showed level 1 bcl-2 expression and only 1 patient had level 2 expression. The p53 mutations were identified level 3 expression in 48.4% of the cases, followed by level 2 (26.4%) and level 1 (25.3%) identifications. The Ki-67 expression was recognized level 3 in 6 patients, level 2 in 21 and level 1 in 66 cases. Significant correlations were seen between p53 expression and tumor grading (p=0.004) and between immunostain of Ki-67 and clinical stage (p=0.031). The p53, bcl-2 and Ki-67 expressions in upper urinary tract TCC specimens were not a significant factor of patients¡¦ survival. Group 2: Of the tumors all cytoplasm has level 3 PTEN expressions and the nuclei, 18 (19.4%) showed scanty expression, 35 (37.6%) revealed focal expression, and diffuse expression was noted in 40 (43.0%) cases. Loss of PTEN expression in tumor nuclei was positively correlated with pathologic stage (p=0.019). Of the fibrocytes adjacent to tumor cells, the nuclei showed 24 (25.8%) scanty, 59 (63.4%) focal and 10 (10.8%) diffuse distribution of PTEN expressions. Poorly differentiated tumor (grade 3) specimens were correlated with loss of PTEN expression in fibrocytic nuclei adjacent to tumor (p=0.028). Most (58%) fibrocytic cytoplasm was scanty PTEN expression, followed by 23 (24.7%) diffuse and 16 (17.2%) focal immunostaining. PTEN expressions in upper urinary tract TCC specimens were not a significant factor of patients¡¦ survival. Conclusions: We examined 93 surgical specimens of upper urinary tract TCC for the expression of PTEN and 91 cases for bcl-2, p53 and Ki-67 by immunohistochemical stained. Correlation between tumor grading and p53 mutations and correlation between clinical stage and Ki-67 immunoreactivity were observed. Meanwhile, loss of PTEN expression in tumor nuclei of upper urinary TCC is correlated significantly with advanced tumor stage, and poorly differentiated tumor specimens were correlated with loss of PTEN expression in normal nuclei adjacent to tumor cells. However, no correlation between overall survival rate and tumor markers was identified. Thus, the detection of p53, bcl-2, Ki-67 and PTEN would be not enough for evaluation the prognosis of upper TCC.

The Caenorhabditis elegans Eph RTK, VAB-1, has known roles in neuronal and epidermal morphogenesis as well as oocyte maturation through interaction with its ephrin ligands. In humans, Eph receptors are involved in nervous and vascular system development and have been implicated in cancer formation and progression. DAF-18, a C. elegans ortholog of the human tumour suppressor gene, PTEN, has been identified as an interacting partner with the Eph RTK, VAB-1. Mutations in human PTEN have been associated with numerous cancers and in the worm, DAF-18 is a well studied member of the DAF-2/Insulin receptor-like signaling pathway which has roles in dauer formation, thermotolerance and adult longevity. Our lab has previously shown that VAB-1/EphR binds DAF-18. To further investigate the significance of this interaction as well as offer additional function to the proteins involved, I have shown that VAB-1/EphR is a negative regulator of DAF-18/PTEN at the protein level. Western blotting reveals that endogenous expression of DAF-18/PTEN is low in wild-type animals and expression is increased in a vab-1/ephR mutant. Additionally, VAB-1/EphR and DAF-18/PTEN are expressed in head neurons, oocytes and the germline precursor cells, Z2/Z3. vab-1/ephR mutants show increases longevity and sensitivity to dauer conditions which is consistent with increased DAF-18/PTEN activity. Lastly, daf-18(ok480) is able to suppress the oocyte maturation phenotype and increased MAPK expression displayed by vab-1(dx31) animals, providing genetic evidence of an interaction. By identifying the tissues where these proteins are co-expressed and substantiating the interaction with multiple analyses, novel roles may be proposed for each: VAB-1/EphR in DAF-2/Insulin signaling and DAF-18/PTEN in oocyte maturation downstream of VAB-1/EphR signaling. This work provides further understanding of how an organism coordinates complex developmental processes and reiterates the notion that cellular signaling is a complex network of interacting players. As many signaling pathways are evolutionarily conserved, my research in C. elegans may provide a mechanism on how Eph RTKs and PTEN are regulated in more complex organisms, including humans. / Thesis (Master, Biology) -- Queen's University, 2009-02-27 17:09:10.582

Vascular smooth muscle cell migration is a significant contributor to many aspects of heart disease, and specifically atherosclerosis. Tissue damage in the arteries can result in the formation of a fatty streak. Smooth muscle cells (SMC) can then migrate to this site to form a fibrous cap, stabilizing the fatty plaque. Since cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in developed countries, this function of SMC is an essential area of study. The formation of lamellipodia and circular dorsal ruffles were studied in this project as indicators that cell migration is occurring. The roles of the proteins p53, Rac, caldesmon and PTEN were investigated with regards to these actin-based structures. The tumour suppressor p53 is often reported to cause apoptosis, senescence or cell cycle arrest when stress is placed on a cell, but has recently been shown to regulate cell migration as well. It was determined in this project that p53 could inhibit the formation of both lamellipodia and circular dorsal ruffles. It was also shown that this could occur directly through an inhibition of the GTPase Rac. Previous studies have shown that p53 can upregulate caldesmon, a protein which is known to bind to and stabilize actin filaments while inhibiting Arp2/3-mediated branching. It was confirmed that p53 could upregulate caldesmon, and that caldesmon could inhibit the formation of lamellipodia and circular dorsal ruffles. The phosphorylation of caldesmon by p21-associated kinase (PAK) or extracellular signal-related kinase (Erk) was shown to effectively reverse the ability of caldesmon to inhibit these structures. The role of phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) was also studied with regards to this signalling pathway. PTEN was shown to inhibit lamellipodia and circular dorsal ruffles through its lipid phosphatase activity. It was concluded that p53 can inhibit the formation of lamellipodia and circular dorsal ruffles in vascular SMC, and that this occurs through Rac, caldesmon and PTEN. / Thesis (Master, Biochemistry) -- Queen's University, 2011-06-10 13:15:37.081

La mélanomagenèse est un processus complexe sous-tendu par des mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires variés. L'ensemble de ces mécanismes moléculaires est impliqué dans les réseaux moléculaires permettant une signalisation coordonnée au sein de la cellule. De nombreuses publications montrent que les voies de signalisation MAPK et PI3K/AKT ont un rôle important dans la mélanomagenèse. NRAS et BRAF sont des oncogènes de la voie MAPK mutés respectivement dans 20% et 50% des mélanomes. PTEN est un gène suppresseur de tumeur inhibant la voie PI3K/AKT, dont la perte est souvent associée aux mutations de BRAF. Le traitement récent des mélanomes métastatiques avec les inhibiteurs spécifiques de BRAFV600E donne des résultats exceptionnels, mais ces résultats sont limités aux patients dont le mélanome est porteur de la mutation BRAFV600E, et il existe naturellement des échappements thérapeutiques, parfois lié à l'apparition de mutations NRAS. Nous avons choisi d'étudier le rôle de NRAS et de PTEN, qui sont des protéines majeures des voies MAPK et PI3K. Le but de ce travail est d'évaluer la coopération de NRAS et PTEN au cours de la mélanomagenèse. L'expression de PTEN est fréquemment altérée au cours du mélanome, mais le rôle de PTEN est mal connu. Au cours de ce travail, nous décrivons pour la première fois une mutation de NRAS concomitante à une perte de PTEN dans des prélèvements humains de mélanome et dans des lignées cellulaires humaines. Afin de comprendre l'effet de cette double mutation sur la mélanomagenèse, nous avons étudié des souris transgéniques avec expression d'une forme oncogénique de NRAS et/ou inactivation de PTEN dans le lignage mélanocytaire. L'inactivation isolée de PTEN n'a aucun effet sur la mélanomagénèse. En revanche, en association avec la mutation oncogénique de NRAS, la perte de PTEN accélère le développement des mélanomes, en réduisant le temps de latence et en provoquant l'apparition de métastases plus nombreuses en comparaison aux mélanomes présentant uniquement la mutation oncogénique de NRAS. Nous avons également démontré que la perte de PTEN induit un échappement au phénomène de sénescence. En conclusion, l'inactivation de PTEN coopère avec les mutations de NRAS pour l'initiation et la progression des mélanomes.

De nombreuses études épidémiologiques associent le cholestérol avec l'incidence et le développement du cancer de la prostate. Parmi les acteurs impliqués dans le métabolisme du cholestérol, les récepteurs nucléaires LXRα et LXRβ sont identifiés comme d'importants régulateurs intra-cellulaires capables d'ajuster les niveaux d'accumulation de cette molécule. En parallèle, ces récepteurs peuvent exercer des effets anti-prolifératif et pro-apoptotique sur des cellules tumorales prostatiques. L'ensemble de ces données suggère un rôle protecteur des LXRs dans le cadre du cancer de la prostate. Les objectifs de ces travaux ont été d'étudier les mécanismes moléculaires reliant les LXRs au cycle cellulaire et de comprendre le rôle de ces récepteurs nucléaires dans le processus de la carcinogenèse prostatique. Nous avons ainsi montré que les LXRs exerçaient leur effet anti-prolifératif sur des cellules murines épithéliales prostatiques (MPECs) notamment via des modulations des voies de transduction PI3K/AKT et MAPK. Ces résultats font de ces cellules un modèle d'étude des mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans cet effet. Les souris Lxrαβ-/- nourries avec un régime riche en cholestérol présentent un phénotype de néoplasie prostatique associé à un profil tanscriptomique proche de celui de souris modèles de cancer de la prostate démontrant l'effet protecteur des LXRs dans une condition d'hypercholestérolémie. Enfin, l'expression et l'activité des LXRs et leur gènes cibles ont été étudiées dans un modèle murin de carcinogenèse prostatique, les souris Pten-/-, dont l'invalidation du gène suppresseur de tumeur Pten est spécifique de l'épithélium prostatique. De manière intéressante, nous montrons que les LXRs sont activés au cours de la carcinogenèse prostatique et que la perte des LXRs dans les souris Pten-/- entraîne une accélération de la progression tumorale. Au final, ces résultats mettent en lumière que les LXRs peuvent exercer un rôle de barrière limitant la progression tumorale, notamment par l'intermédiaire de leurs gènes cibles codant les cassettes d'efflux de cholestérol, Abca1 et Abcg1.

Early diagnosis of endometrial cancer (EC) is uncertain and women undergo preventive hysterectomy in cases where a non-invasive treatment can be used instead. To contribute to solving this challenge we investigated if early changes in the nuclear 3D telomere architecture during carcinoma development can be detected prior to the first morphological evidence of precancerous lesions. We utilized Pten heterozygous mice that develop progressive carcinoma in the endometrial tissue similar to EC development in women. We used telomere fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), 3D molecular imaging and analysis techniques on interphase nuclei of endometrial glandular epithelial cells to identify alterations in the 3D-telomere profile. We found that telomere dysfunction in Pten heterozygous mice is present already in endometrial simple hyperplasia lesions prior to detectable loss of PTEN protein expression and that the 3D telomere architecture has a specific signature that indicates early telomere dysfunction predictive for endometrial malignant transformation.

Prostate cancer is a clinically heterogeneous disease, with manifestations ranging from a rapid and often fatal progression, to indolent disease. Unfortunately, current clinicopathological criteria cannot differentiate men whose tumours require immediate and aggressive therapy from those in which active surveillance may be more appropriate. Both PTEN deletion and ETS gene fusions are biomarkers with potential to aid in prostate cancer clinical management. In this thesis, I postulate that PTEN and fusion gene rearrangements may be associated with specific genomic changes, and might also have general impact on the genomic landscape of prostate cancer. A meta-analysis of somatic copy number alterations (CNAs) examined 662 unique prostate cancer patient samples consisting of 546 primary and 116 advanced tumours derived from eleven publications. Normalization, segmentation and identification of corresponding CNAs for meta-analysis were achieved using established commercial software. The CNA distribution in primary disease was characterized by losses at 2q, 3p, 5q, 6q, 8p, 12p, 13q, 16q, 17p, 18q and 10q (PTEN), and acquisition of 21q deletions associated with the TMPRSS2:ERG fusion rearrangement. Unsupervised analysis identified five genomic subgroups. Parallel analysis of advanced and primary tumours indicated that PTEN genomic deletions and the gene fusion were enriched in advanced disease. A supervised analysis of PTEN deletions and gene fusions demonstrated that PTEN deletion was sufficient to impose higher levels of CNA. Moreover, the overall percentage of the genome altered was significantly higher when PTEN was deleted, suggesting that this important genomic subgroup was likely characterized by intrinsic chromosomal instability. Candidate genes in each of the recurrent CNA regions characteristic of each subgroup showed that signalling networks associated with cancer progression and genome stability were likely to be perturbed at the highest level in the PTEN deleted genomic subgroup. Therefore classification of primary prostate cancer according to PTEN deletions, but not the gene fusion, was associated with greatly increased levels of CNA. Collectively, the impact of PTEN loss resulted in a significantly greater frequency and extent of alteration, and heightened genomic instability with concomitant pathway disruptions. / Thesis (Ph.D, Pathology & Molecular Medicine) -- Queen's University, 2014-04-29 14:20:06.02