In the first essay, I show that the transition to public equity markets have important implications to firms’ innovative process. To establish a causal effect of the IPO, I compare the long-run innovation of firms that completed their filing and went public with that of firms that withdrew their filing and remained private. I use NASDAQ fluctuations during the book-building period as a source of exogenous variation that affects IPO completion but is unlikely to affect long-run innovation. Using this approach, I find that the quality of internal innovation declines by 50 percent relative to firms that remained private. The decline in innovation is driven by both an exodus of skilled inventors and a decline in productivity among remaining inventors. However, going public allows firms to attract new human capital and purchase externally generated innovations through mergers and acquisitions. In the second essay, we explore the effects of private equity investments on the industries they invest at. This analysis looks across nations and industries to assess the impact of private equity on industry performance. Industries where PE funds have invested in the past five years have grown more quickly in terms of productivity and employment. It is hard to find support for claims that economic activity in industries with private equity backing is more exposed to aggregate shocks. The results using lagged private equity investments suggest that the results are not driven by reverse causality. Finally, in the third essay we model situations in which a principal offers a set of contracts to a group of agents to participate in a project. Agents’ benefits from participation depend on the identity of other participating agents. We show that when assuming multilateral externalities, the optimal contracts’ payoff relies on a ranking of the agents, which can be described as arising from a tournament among the agents. Rather than simply ranking agents according to a measure of popularity, the optimal contracting scheme makes use of a more refined two-way comparison between the agents. We derive results on the principal’s revenue extraction and the role of the level of externalities’ asymmetry. / Economics

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:32:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ligia Ferraci.pdf: 1333034 bytes, checksum: 7872150631d4eb40ece4b912f3149334 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-08-11 / Fundo Mackenzie de Pesquisa / The capital market in Brazil has experienced, especially from the year 2003 to 2009,several changes and significant growth due to the global economic and financial environment as well as internal factors highlighting the regulatory improvements, development and credibility. As a result of this growth, we have observed a large number of companies that became public especially from 2006 on. The stock price behavior during this period has showed significant short-term positive returns, even when compared to Ibovespa index rates (Sao Paulo s Stock Exchange).Some potential explanations for such events may be the stock issue below the correct price (underpricing), informational asymmetry, the winner's curse (Rock ,1986) or other market anomalies discussed in the financial theory. This research focused the study in two possible factors: (1) issue below the correct price, known in financial literature for underpricing, and (2) the risk and return function as explanatory for stock returns in IPO issued from 1st, 30.th, 60.th, 90.th and 180.th days considering the sample of companies which registered initial public offerings (IPO) from 2003 until December 2009 listed on the Bovespa and the Securities Commission (CVM) and which had daily close available prices. The objective for this study was to verify the existence of underpricing in the IPO process and whether the observed abnormal returns can be explained by the risk and return function. As for the conclusion, in line with results of other recent researches for Brazilian stock market, were observed positive returns in the short term and negative returns for long term concluding that underpricing is a practice adopted in IPO s in Brazil as well as in other developed capital markets. / O mercado de capitais no Brasil experimentou,especialmente entre os anos de 2003 a 2009,muitas mudanças e crescimento acentuado em razão do ambiente econômico-financeiro mundial, bem como de fatores internos de ordem regulatória que propiciaram seu amadurecimento, desenvolvimento e credibilidade.Como consequência deste crescimento,observou-se um grande número de empresas que abriram seu capital mais acentuadamente a partir do ano de 2006.O retorno das ações durante esta periodo mostrou valores significativos a curto prazo, mesmo se comparados aos índices médios de mercado da Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo-Bovespa. Algumas explicações possíveis para tais eventos podem ser o lançamento abaixo do preço correto (underpricing), assimetria informacional, maldição do vencedor (winner s curse), anomalias de mercado, etc. Esta pesquisa centralizou o foco de estudo em dois possíveis fatores: (1) lançamento abaixo do preço correto, denominado na literatura financeira de underpricing, e (2) a relação entre risco e retorno como explicativa para retornos das ações lançadas em IPO a partir do 1.º, 30.º, 60.º, 90.º e 180.º dias da emissão considerando a amostra das empresas que registraram ofertas iniciais (IPO) a partir de 2003 até dezembro de 2009 listadas na Bovespa e na Comissão de Valores Mobiliários (CVM) que possuíam cotações diárias de fechamento disponíveis.O objetivo do trabalho foi verificar a existência underpricing no processo de abertura de capital e se os retornos anormais verificados podem ser explicados pela relação risco e retorno.A título de conclusão e em consonância com resultados de outras pesquisas recentes para o mercado brasileiro, foram encontrados retornos positivos no curto prazo e negativos no longo prazo concluindo-se que o underpricing é uma prática adotada nos processos de IPO no Brasil assim como ocorre em outros mercados de capitais desenvolvidos.

This study aims to further develop research, from a management approach, by studying how MCS packages change when an organization undergoes an initial public offering. Furthermore, it aims to use Malmi and Brown’s (2008) management control system package in order to categorize and analyze the complexity of organizational change brought on by an initial public offering. This study draws on interviews with top managers in a high technological firm, which has recently been listed on the stock exchange. The results of this study imply that an initial public offering can change the MCS package in a number of different ways. Public companies do not necessarily become short-term, an initial public offering can affect a company’s external focus and measurements without affecting its internal measurements, in order for companies to become suitable for the stock market they formalize policies and appoint an independent board and listed companies can experience changes to their culture.

This research paper makes an attempt at closing the gap in literature by testing agency considerations as an influencing factor for dividend policy of IPO firms. Dividend data of 642 firms from seven countries are used to make statistical interferences about the time it takes an IPO to issue dividend, influenced by different institutional factors of countries. An OLS is used to make these interferences. The results presented here indicate that there is a robust effect of legal enforcement on the time it takes before an IPO firm in a certain country pays its first dividend.

[pt] A Oferta Publica Inicial de Ações (IPO) tem sido objeto de estudo em diversos países, em função da importância destas operações, principalmente em mercados desenvolvidos. Especialmente no Brasil, este ainda é um assunto relativamente novo, com crescimento no volume de operações nos últimos anos. Este trabalho busca avaliar as operações através da metodologia de Múltiplos, verificando se as empresas foram superavaliadas, ou tiveram seu valor subestimado. Em seguida, foi estimado o custo de capital próprio das empresas, com base nas informações disponíveis no momento da operação e comparado ao retorno observado após o lançamento. Da mesma forma, foi estimado o beta, com base na média de cada setor e comparado ao realizado nos meses seguintes, buscando testar a assertividade das estimativas utilizadas para o cálculo do Custo de Capital. O presente trabalho teve como ponto de partida o estudo realizado por Felipe Casotti (2007), analisando as operações entre 2004 e 2006, tendo agora uma amostra maior e um histórico mais longo de dados, possibilitando análises mais robustas e resultados mais conclusivos. É possível constatar que as precificações das emissões não foram superestimadas, pois apesar das altas valorizações no curto prazo, os retornos de longo prazo ficaram abaixo do médio do mercado e em linha com o Custo de Capital estimado. / [en] Initial Public Offerings (IPO) have been the subject of studies in many countries due to its importance, mainly in developed markets. Especially in Brazil, it is still a new topic, as the number of operations has grown over the last years. This research intends to evaluate these operations, using the Relative Valuation Methodology, to verify if the companies were overpriced or underpriced. Following that, the Cost of Equity for these companies was estimated, based on the information available at the time of the offer and then compared to the return observed after the shares issue. Besides that, the beta was estimated based on the average for each industry, and then compared to the actual observed on the following months, aiming at testing the accuracy of the estimate used in the Cost of Capital calculation. This research was based on a previous study, undertaken by Felipe Casotti (2007), which analyzed the operations between 2004 and 2006, with the added benefit of now having a larger sample and a longer record of actual data, enabling more robust analyses and more conclusive results. It is possible to observe that the price of IPOs were not overestimated, as despite the high upsides in the short term, the returns in the long run performed below market average and were very close to the estimated Cost of Capital.

[pt] A precificação das ações emitidas em ofertas públicas iniciais tem sido alvo de estudos em diversos países. Abordando o conceito de avaliação por múltiplos, este trabalho busca verificar se as ações das empresas estavam sub-avaliadas ou super-avaliadas no momento das suas Ofertas Públicas Iniciais (Initial Public Offerings). Posteriormente, são determinados os custos de capital próprio adotados na emissão, verificando-se a diferença entre betas utilizados no modelo CAPM, no momento da IPO, e os betas dos 12 meses após a oferta inicial. Para tal, foi utilizada uma amostra composta por empresas que abriram capital entre 2004 e 2006. Observou-se que as ações não foram sub- avaliadas, mesmo após serem observados elevados retornos iniciais. No entanto, não há evidências estatísticas de que foram super-avaliadas. Por fim, verificou-se que os betas de 12 meses são significativamente maiores do que os betas utilizados no momento da precificação. Como esperado, o modelo CAPM determinou retornos abaixo dos retornos ocorridos após a emissão. / [en] The pricing of assets issued in initial public offerings has been the subject of many studies in several countries. Using the concept of relative valuation, this study intends to verify if the shares of selected companies were undervalued or not at the time of their IPOs (Initial Public Offering). Later, the cost of equity is determined and betas used in the CAPM model, at the time of the IPO, and the betas verified 12 months after the initial issue are compared. The sample is composed of companies with IPOs during the period 2004-2006. The results show that the shares were undervalued, although high initial returns were observed. However, there is no statistical evidence that they are overvalued. Finally, it was found that the betas after 12 months are significantly higher than the ones used at the time of the pricing. As expected, the CAPM model determined returns below the returns that occurred.

Ao longo do tempo o contexto da economia mundial e brasileira é de expansão, salvo alguns períodos de retração, onde a economia fica estagnada, a exemplo do momento atual que vivemos. Apesar disso, as produções de riqueza vêm crescendo nos últimos anos e, por consequência, as empresas brasileiras, de um modo geral, têm buscado se desenvolver da mesma forma. Para financiar este desenvolvimento as empresas podem captar recursos através de instituições financeiras com que se relacionam. Entretanto este modelo apresenta limitações em relação ao volume de crédito disponível e também tem se mostrado um dos mais caros do mundo. Desta forma buscam-se outras alternativas de financiamentos não convencionais, como por exemplo o Mercado de Capitais. Este mercado tem amadurecido bastante no Brasil nos últimos anos, tornando-se uma alternativa para as empresas que buscam acompanhar este crescimento. São inúmeras as vantagens proporcionadas, mas, por outro lado, também são muitas as dificuldades do processo de preparação para acessar a este mercado, principalmente pelo pouco preparo das empresas para atender níveis elevados de governança corporativa. O objetivo, então, nesse contexto, na esfera do mercado de capitais é de identificar quais são as adaptações necessárias para as empresas ingressarem neste mercado, através da Oferta Pública de Ações (IPO), bem como identificar quais as mudanças necessárias na empresa, suas regras e principais custos que envolvem a operação, além das exigibilidades legais com a implantação de IPO. Conclui-se que alternativas e soluções existem para as dificuldades encontradas, e que o desafio é justamente enfrenta-las, para o próprio amadurecimento da empresa e também para criar diferencial competitivo frente à concorrência. / Over time, the context of the global and the Brazilian economy's has been the expansion, except for some periods of retraction or stagnant, like the current moment that we are living. Nevertheless, the wealth of productions has been growing in recent years ended, consequently, in general, Brazilian companies has sought to develop in the same way. To finance their development, companies can raise funds through financial institutions. However, this model has limitations, like line of credit and volume, and also Brazilian cost has been one of the most expensive in the world. Thus, some companies are seeking others alternatives for unconventional financing, such as Capital Markets. That market increase a lot in Brazil, in recent years and became an alternative for companies that are seeking to monitor this growth. There are many advantages provided, and by the other hand, many difficulties in preparation of process to access the market, especially in to meet high standards governance corporate. The goal, then, in this context, is to identify what are the adaptations necessary for companies to enter in this market through Initial Public Offering (IPO), just like identified the necessary changes in the company, their rules and main costs involving on the operation, and in addition, legal liabilities with the IPO deployment. It is concluded, that there are alternatives and solutions to the difficulties find, and the challenge is to confront them, for to get the own maturity and also to create a competitive over the competition.

Estudos recentes, realizados principalmente no mercado norte-americano, trazem in-dícios de fatores determinantes para o resultado de longo prazo das emissões primá-rias de ações (IPOs, do inglês Initial Public Offerings). Porém, trabalhos com esse enfoque no mercado brasileiro ainda são escassos e inconclusivos, pois utilizam pe-quenas bases de dados e analisam horizontes de tempo de até dois anos. Buscando ampliar a análise de IPOs no mercado brasileiro, o objetivo desta dissertação foi es-tudar os determinantes do desempenho de longo prazo das IPOs realizadas na Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo com horizontes de tempo de três e cinco anos após o pri-meiro dia de negociações. A amostra foi composta por 97 emissões primárias de ações ocorridas entre 2004 e 2012 para o horizonte de três anos e 77 ocorridas entre 2004 e 2010 para o horizonte de cinco anos. O cálculo de retorno de longo prazo seguiu a metodologia de Buy-and-Hold Abnormal Return (BHAR), ajustado ao Ibo-vespa, e os possíveis determinantes do BHAR das IPOs foram submetidos a análises multivariadas através de estimações pelo método de Mínimos Quadrados Ordinários (MQO). Os resultados levam à conclusão de que o desempenho de longo prazo das IPOs brasileiras está positivamente relacionado com: 1) a Idade das firmas, 2) o nível de Governança Corporativa, 3) o Setor e 4) o Desempenho Operacional pós IPO. Pôde-se concluir, também, que o desempenho de longo prazo das IPOs está negati-vamente relacionado com: 1) o Retorno Anormal do Primeiro Dia de negociações, 2) a Quantidade de IPOs realizadas no Ano e 3) o Percentual de Investidores Institucio-nais na emissão primária. Os testes de robustez realizados apontam para uma relação também positiva entre o Crescimento do PIB do período pré IPO com o resultado de longo prazo das ações. / Recent studies, conducted mainly in the North American market, have presented evi-dence regarding decisive factors for the long-run performance of Initial Public Offerings (IPOs). However, the number of similar studies applied in the Brazilian market is yet limited and inconclusive, because they employ reduced databases and short time win-dows up to two years. Seeking to extend the analysis of IPOs in the Brazilian market, the purpose of this study was to explore the determinants of the long-run performance of IPOs held at BM&F Bovespa, with time windows of three and five years after the first trading day. The sample was composed of 97 initial public offerings occurred be-tween 2004 and 2012 for three-year horizon and 77 occurred between 2004 and 2010 for the five-year horizon. The long-run return calculation followed the methodology of Buy-and-Hold Abnormal Return (BHAR), adjusted to the Ibovespa index, and the pos-sible determinants of BHAR related to IPOs were subjected to multivariate analysis using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) approach. The results lead to the conclusion that the long-run performance of Brazilian’s IPOs is positively related with: 1) Age of the Firms, 2) the level of Corporate Governance, 3) Sector and 4) post IPO Operating Performance. In addition, it was noticed that the long-run performance of IPOs is neg-atively related with: 1) the Abnormal Return of the First Trading Day, 2) the IPO amount held in the year and 3) percentage of Institutional Investors the IPO. Robustness tests were performed, and their conclusions highlighted a positive relationship between GDP growth of previous IPO period with the long-run performance.

本研究的主要目的在探討是否我國新上市公司盈餘管理的現象與証券交易法上所規定的上市申請的門檻有關。我國新上市公司在上市後多有業績衰退及上市前盈餘管理之現象（曾國楊，民國84年）。這種人為的業績擴充或增加盈餘，往往是為了符合法規中上市申請的規定，特別是上市門檻的規定。倘若公司上市可以為原始股東帶來大量的邊際利益，列在可接受的範圍內，申請上市公司自有動機從事上市前業績人為擴充及盈餘管理的現象。本研究就在探討這項研究問題。 本研究以民國74年至83年間斬上市的公司為樣本，測試獲利能力較差或存續期間較短之新上市公司，是否較有動機在上市前從事盈餘管理。實証結果顯示： 就獲利能力來說，獲利能力較差之第一類上市公司在上市前會以應計項目及與營業有關之應計項目來操縱盈餘；但就第二類上市公司而言，實証結果反而與假說所預測的相反，即獲利能力較優的新上市公司反而會在上市前操縱盈餘。 就存續期間來說，第一類上市公司之實証結果大致與假說所預測的一致，但未達顯著水準，即存續期間較短之新上市公司，並不會在上市前以應計項目式與營業有關之應計項目來進行盈餘管理。就第二類上市公司來說，實証結果則與假說相反，但也未達顯著水準。 / This study aims to investigate whether the earnings management prior to IPO (Initial Public Offerings) relates to the qualifications of an IPO. In general, a firm will manage its earnings prior to IPO and have sales recess subsequent to IPO. Due to mandated IPO qualifications, perhaps, the motivation of earnings management or artificial sales expansion comes from the mandated IPO qualifications. The empirical sample period covers from 1985 to 1994 on which the empirical findings can be summarized as follows. 1. Low profitability first class firms will manage their earnings prior to IPO by the use of net accruals and net accruals from operations. In contrast, high profitability second class firms will manage their earnings prior to IPO. 2. This study cannot conclude that a younger IPO firm has a stronger incentive in managing its earnings than an older firm does.

<p>The concept of grandstanding comes from Gompers (1996), in his article, he defined “to grandstand” as “to act or conduct oneself with a view to impressing onlookers”. The idea of grandstanding does not only apply solely to venture capital but also could apply to underwriters of IPOs industry as well.</p><p>IPOs activities provide huge revenues for underwriters, so underwriters compete with each other for IPO business. China’s stock market grows explosively after 2006, and it has the highest underpricing, as well as more and more underwriters have emerged recently, so our paper is constrained under Chinese stock market environment. We empirically examine whether inexperienced underwriters grandstand when they conduct IPOs in order to achieve more market shares, for example by deliberate underpricing or charging lower fee rates.</p><p>This study is conducted from the underwriter’s perspective. We use two kinds of reputation measurement methods to define “inexperienced” and “prestigious underwriters” and employ a quantitative approach to analyze the data. Evidence from a sample of 392 IPOs from June 19, 2006 to March 24, 2010 suggests that inexperienced underwriters do not have incentives to grandstand. The number of IPOs that underwriters have conducted and recent IPO performance do not always contribute to a gain of market share directly. Therefore, inexperienced underwriters do not provide more underpriced IPOs nor do they charge lower fee rates. Evidence also marginally supports that underwriters do not intend to conduct small offer sized IPOs.</p>