La fissuration en relaxation (FER) peut apparaître dans les zones affectées par la chaleur de larges pièces soudées pendant leur utilisation entre 500 et 700°C. Il est admis que ce phénomène est induit par la relaxation à haute température de champs de contraintes résiduelles initialement introduits lors du soudage. L'objectif de ce travail est d'identifier, dans les aciers de type AISI 316L, les caractéristiques de ce type de matériaux, ainsi que les forces motrices, responsables du développement de la fissuration en relaxation.La méthodologie proposée consiste à reproduire les conditions de la FER dans cinq aciers de type AISI 316L de compositions chimiques différentes en utilisant des éprouvettes de type « Compact Tension » (CT) pré-comprimées. L'étude des éprouvettes à l'aide du MEB, de l'EBSD, du MET et de la tomographie X a révélé que de l'endommagement intergranulaire s'était développé dans quelques une d'entre elles. Le niveau d'endommagement mesuré dans chaque éprouvette dépend de la nuance de l'acier, de la température et de la durée d'exposition thermique, et du rayon d'entaille.Ce travail implique également la prédiction numérique des champs de déformations et de contraintes résiduelles dans les éprouvettes à l'aide d'une nouvelle loi de comportement viscoplastique à variables internes. La comparaison entre les champs de contraintes résiduelles prédits dans les éprouvettes de type CT et les distributions d'endommagement mesuré par tomographie a permis de déduire le niveau de contrainte résiduelle critique nécessaire pour l'initiation de la FER. Finalement, les distributions d'endommagement mesurées expérimentalement ont pu être correctement prédites numériquement avec une loi phénoménologique d'endommagement scalaire alimentée par les prédictions du modèle de comportement viscoplastique. / Stress relaxation cracking can potentially be found in the heat affected zone of large welded parts after service in the 500-700°C temperature range. This phenomenon, known as reheat cracking (RC), is driven by the high temperature relaxation of residual stress fields initially introduced during welding. The main objective of this doctoral thesis is to identify the material and microstructural characteristics as well as the driving forces responsible for RC damage development in AISI 316L-type austenitic stainless steels.The proposed methodology relies on the reproduction of RC conditions in five chemically different AISI 316L-type steels using pre-compressed CT-like specimens. Subsequent investigation using SEM, EBSD, TEM and X-ray tomography revealed that intergranular damage had developed in some of the specimens. The extent of damage was found to depend on the steel grade, the temperature and duration of the thermal exposure, and the notch radius.The numerical investigation of the local residual stress and strain fields in the specimens was carried out using a novel internal state variable-based viscoplastic constitutive model. A comparison between the predicted residual stress fields in the CT-like specimens and the intergranular damage distributions measured by X-ray tomography enabled the threshold level of local residual stresses associated with the initiation of stress relaxation microcracks to be inferred. Finally, the distribution of the measured local RC damage was modelled numerically by explicitly linking a suitable phenomenological scalar damage law with the above constitutive model. The corresponding results were found to be consistent with the observed damage distributions.

Le silicium obtenu par croissance cristalline de lingots massifs est l'une des matière les plus utilisées dans l'industrie du photovoltaïque (PV) en tant que substrat. Des contraintes résiduelles faibles apparaissent durant les procédés thermiques et mécaniques de fabrications. Malgré leurs faibles intensités, ces contraintes sont néfastes et induisent des casses importantes durant la mise en forme et la mise en fonctionnement des cellules solaires. Le but de l'étude est de caractériser ces contraintes résiduelles. La photoélasticimétrie infrarouge est une méthode adaptée pour déterminer ces champs de contraintes de quelques MPa de façon non-destructive, sans contact et in-situ à l'échelle du substrat. Un dispositif spécifique a été développé afin de mener à bien l'étude. Les origines des contraintes résiduelles ont été mises en relation avec les différents procédés de fabrication. / During the fabrication of crystalline silicon wafers for solar panels, destructive residual stresses are induced. Both thermal gradient (cast or Czochralski process) and cutting processes (slurry or diamond wire based processes) bring these global stresses. Photoelasticimetry appears as a powerful method able to measure this low level of stresses. As an optical technique, it is non-destructive, contactless and it may be used in-situ. A full field automatic infrared polariscope has been made to study the residual stresses at the wafer level. The origin of the residual stresses has been dissociated. Two different cutting processes are mechanically compared.

Les travaux de thèse se sont attachés à développer des outils permettant :(i) d'estimer par nanoindentation le niveau de contraintes résiduelles locales de type biaxial introduit dans un alliage d'aluminium 2050-T8. Nous proposons une méthode d'estimation qui couple des essais expérimentaux de nanoindentation, l'observation des empreintes résiduelles et une analyse numérique de l'effet de contraintes résiduelles élastiques biaxiales sur la géométrie des empreintes résiduelles d'indentation. et (ii) de déterminer par nanoindentation le comportement mécanique d'un film d'oxyde ultra-mince, d'épaisseur variant entre 15 et 20nm, formé sur un acier inoxydable biphasé de type Duplex. Nous avons développé une méthode de caractérisation de films ultra-minces qui couple la réalisation et l'analyse d'essais expérimentaux à l'aide d'indenteurs dont le défaut de pointe est déterminé, et la reproduction de ces essais en simulation numérique 3D à l'aide des géométries réelles des indenteurs. / Works performed during this thesis were dedicated to development of tools allowing:(i) To estimate using nanoindentation tests the level of biaxial residual stresses introduced within a 2050-T8 aluminium alloy. We propose an estimation method that couples experimental nanoindentation tests, residual imprints observation and numerical evaluation of the impact of elastic biaxial residual stresses on the geometries of residual indentation imprints. And (ii) the determination by nanoindentation of the mechanical behavior of an ultra-thin oxide film, between 15 to 20nm thickness, formed on a dual phased Duplex stainless steel. We developed a characterization method that couples analysis of experimental nanoindentation tests using several indenters with known tip defects, and reproduction of these tests in 3D finite element simulations using the true indenters' geometries.

Les films de silice dont sont constitués les traitements antireflets des verres de lunettes sont déposés par vaporisation au canon à électrons, à température ambiante. Ils sont le siège de fortes contraintes résiduelles compressives qui diminuent considérablement leur stabilité mécanique. Ces contraintes sont difficiles à contrôler parce que les paramètres process qui les affectent sont très nombreux: propriétés du substrat, du gaz résiduel, caractéristiques de l’enceinte et du canon à électrons, vitesse de croissance,… Ils ne sont par ailleurs pas tous indépendants et agissent souvent sur plusieurs phénomènes physiques à la fois. Dans cette thèse, nous mettons en œuvre des simulations numériques et des expériences pour identifier les mécanismes à l’origine de la mise en compression des films de silice pendant leur croissance. Les expériences nous permettent de distinguer trois régimes de croissance, en fonction de la pression de gaz résiduel. Sous vide très poussé, où le gaz a un rôle négligeable, les films croissent en compression. Ensuite, à mesure que la pression augmente, l’incorporation d’espèces issues du gaz dans les films les comprime légèrement. Enfin, lorsque la pression augmente encore, le ralentissement des particules vaporisées par le gaz diminue fortement le niveau de compression et masque l’effet d’incorporation. Les dépôts de silice par dynamique moléculaire nous permettent d’explorer la limite de vide idéal. Grâce à une étude paramétrique systématique, nous trouvons que la mise en compression des films est exclusivement contrôlée par l’énergie cinétique moyenne des particules incidentes. En outre, les valeurs expérimentales ne peuvent être retrouvées qu’avec une énergie de quelques eV, au moins dix fois plus grande que toutes les prédictions formulées dans la littérature sur le dépôt. Ce résultat inattendu nous conduit à réfuter l’idée que la vaporisation au canon à électrons procéderait par simple échauffement thermique. Nous le confirmons en déposant expérimentalement des films à partir de monoxyde de silicium, évaporé thermiquement ou vaporisé au canon à électrons: les premiers croissent en tension, les seconds en compression. Finalement, pour expliquer les quelques eV prédits, nous proposons que sous irradiation électronique, une concentration de charges se forme à la surface de la silice en raison de sa très faible conductivité électrique. Les particules vaporisées qui sont chargées sont alors accélérées par répulsion Coulombienne / Silica thin films are widely used as low index layers in antireflective coatings. In the ophthalmic industry, they are deposited at ambient temperature, by electron beam vaporization. This process generates large compressive stresses which make the coatings susceptible to damage. It is thus crucial to understand how these stresses emerge. However, this problem is highly complex because many process parameters may play a role: substrate and residual gas properties, characteristics of the deposition chamber, of the electron gun, growth rate,… Moreover, these parameters may depend on each other and affect several phenomena at the same time. In this thesis, numerical simulations and experiments are performed in order to identifiy the mechanisms responsible for the generation of compressive stresses during film growth. The experiments reveal three regimes of growth, depending on the residual gas pressure. Near ultra high vacuum, where the effect of residual gas is negligible, films grow under compression. Then, as pressure increases, incorporation of gas species in the films slightly compresses them. Eventually, when pressure is high enough so that vaporized particles are slowed down by collisions with gas particles, the level of compression significantly decreases; this rapidly masks the incorporation effect. Molecular dynamics simulations allow us to explore the ideal vacuum limit. By depositing silica films in a vast ensemble of conditions, we find that their compressive state of stress is solely controlled by the mean kinetic energy of incident particles. Comparison with experiments suggests that this energy is equal to a few eV, which is at least ten times greater than predictions from the literature on deposition. This unexpected result leads us to refute the idea that electron beam vaporization would be equivalent to simple themal heating. We confirm this experimentally, by comparing films deposited from silicon monoxide either thermally evaporated or vaporized using an electron beam: the formers grow under tension while the latters under compression. Finally, we explain the ejection of particles of a few eV as coming from the very low electrical conductivity of silica: under electronic irradiation, charges accumulate at its surface and accelerate the charged vaporized particles by Coulombian repulsions

The objective of this thesis is to study the mechanical properties of magnesium-based composite (AX41) reinforced by short Saffil fibers. Two type of samples have been investigated: fiber plane parallel respective perpendicular to the loading axis. In both case compression tests were performed in temperature range from 23řC to 200řC. Deformation test were completed by acoustic emission and neutron diffraction measurement. Both methods provide information about the ongoing deformation mechanisms. Microstructure of deformed sample was investigated by SEM and EBSD methods in order to confirm the ND and AE results. The internal strain field in the material was predicted with numerical FEM and compared with the observed experimental values.

Additive manufacturing is a novel manufacturing technique, which has developed rapidly in recent years. The additive manufacturing process produces complex geometries, light weighted components and reduces the material waste. During the building process, a laser energy source is commonly used to melt the metal powder. Due to the presence of thermal gradients, residual stresses resides in the final product. These residual stresses, when released, result in a distortion of the product. To predict the appearing residual stresses and distortions, simulation tools can be used and prevent costly trials of failed printed products. This thesis investigates whether a good prediction of residual stresses and distortions can be performed in additively manufactured components using MSC Simufact. The inherent strain method was used to predict the residual stresses and distortions of a cantilever beam respectively a pipe. The printed components were then compared with the simulations. The residual stresses were examined using a X-ray di↵ractometer and the distortions were analyzed by a laser scanner.Results showed that the predicted distortions of the pipe correlated well with the simulations. However, the residual stresses were dicult to compare with the simulations. The conclusion that Simufact Additive can predict distortions can thus be drawn.

A detailed understanding of failure mechanisms in thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) can help develop reliable and durable TBCs for advanced gas turbine engines. One of the characteristics of failure in electron beam physical vapor deposited (EB-PVD) TBCs is the development of instability, named rumpling, at the interface between (Ni, Pt)Al bond coat and thermally grown oxide (TGO). In this study, thermal cycling at 1100°C with 1 hr dwell time was carried out on 25.4mm disc specimens of TBCs that consisted of EB-PVD coated ZrO2-7wt. %Y2O3, (Pt,Ni)Al bond coat, and CMSX-4 Ni-based superalloy. At specific fraction of lifetime, TBCs were examined by electron microscopy and photostimulated luminescence (PL). Changes in the average compressive residual stress of the TGO determined by PL and the magnitude of rumpling, determined by tortuosity from quantitative microstructural analyses, were examined with respect to the furnace thermal cyclic lifetime and microstructural evolution of TBCs. The combination of elastic strain energy within the TGO and interfacial energy at the interface between the TGO and the bond coat was defined as the TGO energy, and its variation with cyclic oxidation time was found to remain approximately constant ~135J/m2 during thermal cycling from 10% to 80% thermal cyclic lifetime. Parametric study at ~135J/m2 was performed and variation in residual stress with rumpling for different oxide scale thicknesses was examined. This study showed that the contribution of rumpling in residual stress relaxation decreased with an increase in TGO thickness. High pressure turbine blades serviced for 2843 hours and in the as coated form were also examined using electron microscopy and photostimulated luminescence. The difference in iv residual stress values obtained using PL on the suction and pressure sides of as-coated turbine blade were discussed. The presence of a thick layer of deposit on the serviced blade gave signals from stress free α-Al2O3 in the deposit, not from the TGO. The TGO growth constant data from the disc-shape TBCs, thermally cycled at 1100°C, and studies by other authors at different temperatures but on similar EB-PVD coated TBCs with (Pt, Ni)Al bond coat and CMSX-4 Nibased superalloy were used to determine the temperature profile at the YSZ/bond coat interface. The interfacial temperature profiles of the serviced blade and the YSZ thickness profile were compared to document the variable temperature exposure at the leading edge, trailing edge, suction and the pressure side.

Shot peening is a cold-working surface treatment, basically consisting in pelting the surface of the to-be-treated component with a high number of small hard particles blown at relatively high velocity. This causes the plasticization of the surface layer of the substrate, and the generation of a compressive residual stress field beneath the component surface. The surface topology modification can be beneficial for coating adhesion, and the work hardening enhances the fretting resistance of components, but the most commonly appreciated advantage of the process is the increased fatigue resistance in the treated component, due to the compressive residual stress which inhibits the nucleation and propagation of fatigue cracks. In spite of its widespread use, the mechanisms underlying the shot peening process are not completely clear. Many process parameters are involved (material, dimension, velocity of the shots, coverage, substrate mechanical behavior) and their complex mutual interaction affects the success of the process as well as the jeopardizing of any beneficial effect due to the increased surface roughness. Experimental measurements are excessively expensive and time-costly to deal with the wide variability of the process parameters, and their feasibility is not always granted. The effect of shot peening is indeed particularly effective where geometrical details (e.g. notches or grooves) act as stress raisers and where the direct measurement of residual stresses is very difficult. Nonetheless, the knwoledge of the effects of the treatment in this crictical locations would be extremely useful for the quantitative assessment of the effect of shot peening and, ultimately, for the optimization fo the process as well as its complete integration in the design process. The implementation of the finite element method for the simulation of shot peening has been studied since many years. In this thesis the simulation of shot peening is studied, in order to progress towards a simulation approach to be used in the industrial practice. Specifically, the B120 micro shot peening treatment performed with micrometric ceramic beads is studied, which has proven to be very effective of aluminum alloys, such as the aeronautical grade Al7075-T651 alloy considered in this work. The simulation of shot peening on a flat surface is addressed at first. The nominal process parameters are used, to include stochastic variability of the shot dimensions and velocity. A MatLab routine based on the linearization of the impact dent dimension, on the shot dimension and velocity is used to assess the coverage level prior to the simulation and predict the number of shots to full coverage. To best reproduce the hardening phenomena of the substrate material under repeated impacts, the Lemaitre-Chaboche model is tuned on cyclic strain tests. Explicit dynamic finite element simulations are carried out and the statistical nature of the peening treatment is taken into account. The results extracted from the numerical analyses are the final surface roughness and residual stresses, which are compared to the experimentally measured values. A specific novel procedure is devised to account for the effect of surface roughness and radiation penetration in the in-depth residual stress profile. In addition, a static finite element model is devised to assess the concentration effect exerted by the increased surface roughness on an external stress. The simulation of shot peening on an edge is then addressed as a first step towards more complex geometries. Since the true peening conditions are not known in this locations, a synergistic discrete element - finite element method approach is chosen for the correct modelization of the process. A discrete element model of the peening process on a flat surface is used to tune the simulation on the nominal process parameters, i.e. mass flow rate and average shot velocity, and to assess the nozzle translational velocity. Discrete element simulations are used to simulate the process when the nozzle turns around the edge tip. To lower the computing cost, the process is linearized into static-nozzle simulations at different tilting angles. The number of impacting shots and their impact velocity distribution are used to set up the finite element simulations, from which the resulting residual stress field is obtained. In addition to the realistic simulation, two simplified simulation approaches for the practical industrial use are devised. The resulting residual stress fields are compared with the reference residual stress field computed using thermal fields in a finite element simulation, tuned with experimental XRD measurements. The effect of the dimension of the fillet on the edge tip is studied by modifying the finite element model of shot peening on an edge. 3 different fillet radii (up to 40 um) are considered, on the basis of experimental observations. The resulting residual stress field are compared to analyze the effect of the precise geometry of the substrate. Lastly, the simplified simulation approach devised in the case of the edge is used to simulate shot peening on the root of a notch. The resulting residual stress field is again compared to the reconstructed reference one.

Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are an advanced class of material which seeks to leverage the strengths of one material to mitigate the weaknesses of another. This allows for operation in extreme environments or conditions where materials properties must change at various locations within a structure. Fabrication of this advanced class of material is limited due to geometric, economic, and material constraints inherent in the various methods. For this reason, a model was developed to discretize continuous gradient curves to allow for the use of a step-wise approximations to such gradients. These alternative step-wise gradients would allow for the use of numerous manufacturing techniques which have improved composition control, cost of processing, cost of equipment, and equipment availability. One such technique, tape casting, was explored due to its robustness and ability to create layered ceramics. Since ceramics are inherently brittle materials, they serve to be strengthened by the thermal residual stresses that form in the creation of these step-wise graded composites. With models to calculate these residual stresses and determine step-wise approximations of various compositional gradients, the process of designing these layered ceramics can be significantly improved.

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