The effective dose equivalent, H (or the effective dose, E ) to an individual is the primary limiting quantity in radiation protection. However, techniques for measuring H for neutrons have not been fully developed. In this regard a new tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC) based on a gas electron multiplier (GEM) for measuring H*(10), which is a conservative estimate of H, for neutrons was designed and constructed. The deposited energy distribution for two different neutron sources (a Cf-252 source and a AmBe source) was measured using the new TEPC. The measurements were performed using two different proportional gases: P-10 gas and a propane-based tissue equivalent gas at various pressures. A computer simulation of the new TEPC, based on the Monte Carlo method, was performed in order to obtain the pulse height distributions for the two neutron sources. The simulated results and the measured results were compared. Results show that the experimental results agree with the computational results within 20% of accuracy for both Cf-252 and AmBe neutron sources. A new model GEM-based TEPC was developed for use in obtaining H*(10). The value of H*(10) for the Cf-252 source and for the AmBe source using experimental measurements was obtained. These results are presented in this study. The study shows that the GEM-based TEPC can successfully estimate H*(10). With these results and some refinements, this GEM-based TEPC can directly be used as a neutron rem meter.

In the event of a radioactive dispersal device (RDD), the assessment of the internal contamination level of victims is necessary to determine if immediate medical follow-up is necessary. Thermo Scientific's TPM-903B Portal Monitor was investigated to determine if it is a suitable first cut screening tool for internal contamination assessment of victims. A portal monitor was chosen for this study because they are readily accessible, transportable, easy to assemble, and provide whole body count rates due to the detector size. The TPM-903B was modeled in Monte Carlo N-Particles Transport Code Version 5 (MCNP). This computational model was validated against the portal monitor's response to a series of measurements made with four point sources in a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) slab box. Using the validated MCNP5 model and models of the MIRD male and female anthropomorphic phantoms, the response of the portal monitor was simulated for the inhalation and ingestion radionuclides from an RDD. Six representative phantoms were considered: Reference Male, Reference Female, Adipose Male, Adipose Female, Post-Menopausal Adipose Female, and 10-Year-Old Child. The biokinetics via Dose and Risk Calculation Software (DCAL) was implemented using both the inhalation and ingestion pathways to determine the radionuclide concentrations in the organs of the body which were then used to determine the count rate of the portal monitor as a function of time. Dose coefficients were employed to determine the count rate of the detector associated with specific dose limits. These count rates were then compiled into procedure sheets to be used by first responders during the triaging of victims following an RDD.

The objective of this thesis is to determine and analyze the dose rate to personnel throughout the proposed IRIS nuclear power plant. To accomplish this objective, complex models of the IRIS plant have been devised, advanced transport theory methods employed, and computationally intense simulations performed. IRIS is an advanced integral, light water reactor with a 335 MWe expected power output (1000 MWth). Due to its integral design, the IRIS pressure vessel has a large downcomer region. The large downcomer and the neutron reflector provide a great deal of additional shielding. This increase in shielding ensures that the IRIS design easily accomplishes the regulatory dose limits for radiation workers. However, The IRIS project set enhanced objectives of further reducing the dose rate to significantly lower levels, comparable or below the limit allowed for general public. The IRIS nuclear power plant design is very compact and has a rather complex geometric structure. Programs that use conventional methods would take too much time or would be unable to provide an answer for such a challenging deep penetration problem. Therefore, the modeling of the power plant was done using a hybrid methodology for automated variance reduction implemented into the MAVRIC sequence of the SCALE6 program package. The methodology is based on the CADIS and FW-CADIS methods. The CADIS method was developed by J.C. Wagner and A. Haghighat. The FW-CADIS method was developed by J.C. Wagner and D. Peplow. Using these methodologies in the MAVRIC code sequence, this thesis shows the dose rate throughout most of the inhabitable regions of the IRIS nuclear power plant. This thesis will also show the regions that are below the dose rate reduction objective set by the IRIS shielding team.

Dosimetry is a vital component of treatment planning in radiation therapy. Methods of radiation dosimetry currently include the use of: ionization chambers, thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), solid-state detectors and radiographic film. However, these methods are inherently either 1D or 2D and their use involves the perturbation of the radiation beam. Although the dose distribution within tissues following radiation therapy treatments can be modeled using computerized treatment planning systems, a need exists for a dosimeter that can accurately measure dose distributions directly and produce 3D dose maps. Some radiation therapy and brachytherapy treatments require mapping the dose distributions in high-resolution (typically < 1 mm). A dosimetry technique that is capable of producing high resolution 3D dose maps of the absorbed dose distribution within tissues is required. Gel dosimetry is inherently a 3D integrating dosimeter that offers high spatial resolution, precision and accuracy. Polymer gel dosimetry is founded on the basis that monomers dissolved in the gel matrix polymerize due to the presence of free radicals produced by the radiolysis of water molecules. The amount of polymerization that occurs within a polymer gel dosimeter can be correlated to the absorbed dose. The gel matrix maintains the spatial integrity of the polymers and hence a dose distribution can be determined by imaging the irradiated polymer gel dosimeter using an imaging modality such as MRI, x-ray computed tomography (CT), ultrasound, optical CT or vibrational spectroscopy. Polymer gel dosimeters, however, suffer from oxygen contamination. Oxygen inhibits the polymerization reaction and hence polymer gel dosimeters must be manufactured, irradiated and scanned in hypoxic environments. Normoxic polymer gel dosimeters incorporate an anti-oxidant into the formulation that binds the oxygen present in the gel and allows the dosimeter to be made under normal atmospheric conditions. The first part of this study was to provide a comprehensive investigation into various formulations of polymer and normoxic polymer gel dosimeters. Several parameters were used to characterize and assess the performance of each formulation of polymer gel dosimeter including: spatial resolution and stability, temporal stability of the R2-dose response, optimal R2-dose response for changes in concentration of constituents and the effects of oxygen infiltration. This work enabled optimal formulations to be determined that would provide greater dose sensitivity. Further work was done to investigate the chemical kinetics that take place within normoxic polymer gel dosimeters from manufacture to post-irradiation. This study explored the functions that each of the constituent chemicals plays in a polymer gel dosimeter. Although normoxic polymer gel dosimeters exhibit very similar characteristics to polyacrylamide polymer gel dosimeters, one important difference between them was found to be a decrease in R2-dose sensitivity over time in the normoxic polymer gel dosimeter compared to an increase in the polyacrylamide polymer gel dosimeters. From an investigation into the function of anti-oxidants in normoxic polymer gel dosimeters, alternatives were proposed. Several alternative anti-oxidants were explored in this study that found that whilst some were reasonably effective, tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chloride (THPC) had the highest reaction rate. THPC was found not only to be an aggressive scavenger of oxygen, but also to increase the dose sensitivity of the gel. Hence, a formulation of normoxic polymer gel dosimeter was proposed, called MAGAT, that comprised: methacrylic acid, gelatin, hydroquinone and THPC. This formulation was examined in a similar fashion to the studies of the other formulations of polymer and normoxic polymer gel dosiemeters. The gel was found to exhibit spatial and temporal stability and an optimal formulation was proposed based on the R2-dose response. Applications such as IVBT require high-resolution dosimetry. Combined with high-resolution MRI, polymer gel dosimetry has potential as a high-resolution 3D integrated dosimeter. Thus, the second component of this study was to commission a micro-imaging MR spectrometer for use with normoxic polymer gel dosimeters and investigate artifacts related to imaging in high-resolutions. Using high-resolution MRI requires high gradient strengths that, combined with the Brownian motion of water molecules, was found to produce an attenuation of the MR signal and hence lead to a variation in the measured R2. The variation in measured R2 was found to be dependent on both the timing and amplitude of pulses in the pulse sequence used during scanning. Software was designed and coded that could accurately determine the amount of variation in measured R2 based on the pulse sequence applied to a phantom. Using this software, it is possible to correct for differences between scans using different imaging parameters or pulse sequences. A normoxic polymer gel dosimeter was irradiated using typical brachytherapy delivery and the resulting dose distributions compared with dose points predicted by the computerized treatment planning system.The R2-dose response was determined and used to convert the R2 maps of the phantoms to dose maps. The phantoms and calibration vials were imaged with an in-plane resolution of 0.1055 mm/pixel and a slice thickness of 2 mm. With such a relatively large slice thickness compared to the in-plane resolution, partial volume effects were significant, especially in the region immediately adjacent the source where high dose gradients typically exist. Estimates of the partial volume effects at various distances within the phantom were determined using a mathematical model based on dose points from the treatment planning system. The normalized and adjusted dose profiles showed very good agreement with the dose points predicted by the treatment planning system.

Thesis (D.P.H.)--University of Michigan.

Thesis (D.P.H.)--University of Michigan.

Ao longo da evolução dos equipamentos e exames radiológicos, a exposição dos pacientes e trabalhadores envolvidos tem aumentado em grande proporção. Esta exposição não deve ser subestimada, uma vez que acumulada ao longo dos anos pode trazer riscos para a saúde do indivíduo exposto. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a taxa de exposição de trabalhadores à radiação ionizante. Foram realizadas simulações do exame de uretrocistografia utilizando-se de uma câmara de ionização, para verificar a taxa de exposição, colocando-se dosímetros termoluminescentes de em cada espalhador verificando a dose efetiva em locais específicos do corpo do indivíduo ocupacionalmente exposto durante o procedimento. A posição da mesa de exames foi variada durante a exposição para avaliar se esta tem influencia na dose recebida pelos trabalhadores. Os resultados revelaram uma grande diminuição da dose quando a posição da mesa está na horizontal. O aumento da distância dos espalhadores ao paciente teve uma diminuição significativa da taxa de exposição. A maioria dos resultados se apresentou abaixo dos limites preconizados, porém o dosímetro colocado na altura do tórax do espalhador posicionado mais próximo ao paciente excedeu este limite. Portanto, os procedimentos de trabalho devem ser sempre observados com o intuito de manter os limites dentro de um nível de segurança. / Throughout the evolution of radiological equipment and tests, the exposure of patients and workers involved has increased to a great extent. This exhibition should not be underestimated, since accumulated over the years can bring risks to the health of the exposed individual. The objective of this study was to determine the rate of exposure of workers in an X-ray room. Examining urethrocystography simulations were performed using an ionization chamber, to verify the exposure rate, and thermoluminescent dosimeters in each cap to check the effective dose in specific locations of the individual's body occupationally exposed in the examen. The position of the examination table was varied during exposure to assess whether this has influence on the dose received by the workers. The results showed a large decrease in dose when the table position is horizontally. Increased distance spreaders of the patient had a significant decrease in exposure rate. The majority of results presented below recommended limits, but the dosimeter positioned at the height of the thorax on the spreader lens closest to the patient exceeded this limit. Therefore, work procedures should always be observed in order to keep within the limits of a security level.

Este trabalho foi motivado por um estudo maio, proposto pela Agência Internacional de Energia Atômica (IAEA). O objetivo do trabalho foi estimar o kerma incidente (Ki) e a dose glandular média (Dg) em pacientes submetidas a mamografias nas projeções crânio-caudal (CC) e médio-lateral-oblíqua (MLO), nos sistemas de aquisição de imagens analógico e digital CR. A estimativa foi realizada através de cálculos matemáticos, tendo como base estudos computacionais utilizando simulações de Monte Carlo. Este estudo fez parte de um estudo maior em mamografia, coordenado pela IAEA, cujos dados fizeram parte da representação dos dados brasileiros no estudo da América Latina. Foram escolhidas mamografias cuja mama exposta tinha aproximadamente 50% de glandularidade e 50% de adiposidade. Dados da técnica radiográfica utilizada nos exames, assim como a espessura da mama comprimida, foram registrados em planilhas especificas e o cálculo foi realizado com base em testes de rendimento do tubo de raios X dos mamógrafos. Além disso, as mamografias acompanhadas foram analisadas quanto a critérios de qualidade da imagem. Foram acompanhadas 100 exposições, sendo 50 analógicas e d 50 digitais. Os resultados mostraram que as imagens foram predominantemente aceitas quanto aos critérios de qualidade da imagem estabelecidos pala IAEA, com melhores resultados do sistema digital. Os valores de Ki e Dg encontrados para o objeto simulador estavam de acordo com o recomendado, mas os calculados para as pacientes estavam mais altos, principalmente o Ki. O sistema digital obteve doses mais baixas e melhor qualidade de imagem. Os resultados sugerem que os exames devem ser realizados com o devido cuidado, de maneira a oferecer qualidade de imagem para o diagnóstico em doses tão baixas quanto razoavelmente exeqüíveis. O treinamento contínuo dos profissionais da mamografia deve ser realizado de maneira e oferecer exames adequados ao diagnóstico, protegendo os pacientes e mantendo a qualidade do serviço a todos. / This work has been motivated by a larger study, proposed by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The aim of this work was to estimate the incident kerma (Ki) and mean glandular dose (Dg) in patients who underwent mammograms in craniocaudal projections (CC) and mediolateral-ablique (MLO), at analog and digital systems. The estimation was performed using mathematical calculations based on computational studies using Monte Carlo simulations. This study was part of a larger study in mammography, coordinated by the IAEA, whose data were included in the representation of Brazilian data in the study of Latin America. Mammograms with 50% of glandular tissue and 50% of fat were selected. Data from the radiographic technique used in the examinations, as well as the compressed breast thickness were recorded in spreadsheets and specific calculation was made based on output tests of the X-ray tube for mammography. In addition, the mammograms were analysed with the criteria of image quality. The amount of examinations was 100 mammograms, 50 analog and 50 digital. The results showed that the images were largely accepted as the criteria for image quality established by the IAEA, with better results from digital system. The values of Ki and Dg for the phantom were according to the recommended, but those calculate for the patients were higher, especially the Ki. Digital system produced lower dosis and better results on image quality. The results suggests that the examinations must be conducted with due care in order to offer image quality in dosis as low as reasonably achievable. The permanent training of mammographers should be conducted in a manner to provide exams with quality, protecting the patient and maintaining the quality of service to all patients treated.

Ao longo da evolução dos equipamentos e exames radiológicos, a exposição dos pacientes e trabalhadores envolvidos tem aumentado em grande proporção. Esta exposição não deve ser subestimada, uma vez que acumulada ao longo dos anos pode trazer riscos para a saúde do indivíduo exposto. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a taxa de exposição de trabalhadores à radiação ionizante. Foram realizadas simulações do exame de uretrocistografia utilizando-se de uma câmara de ionização, para verificar a taxa de exposição, colocando-se dosímetros termoluminescentes de em cada espalhador verificando a dose efetiva em locais específicos do corpo do indivíduo ocupacionalmente exposto durante o procedimento. A posição da mesa de exames foi variada durante a exposição para avaliar se esta tem influencia na dose recebida pelos trabalhadores. Os resultados revelaram uma grande diminuição da dose quando a posição da mesa está na horizontal. O aumento da distância dos espalhadores ao paciente teve uma diminuição significativa da taxa de exposição. A maioria dos resultados se apresentou abaixo dos limites preconizados, porém o dosímetro colocado na altura do tórax do espalhador posicionado mais próximo ao paciente excedeu este limite. Portanto, os procedimentos de trabalho devem ser sempre observados com o intuito de manter os limites dentro de um nível de segurança. / Throughout the evolution of radiological equipment and tests, the exposure of patients and workers involved has increased to a great extent. This exhibition should not be underestimated, since accumulated over the years can bring risks to the health of the exposed individual. The objective of this study was to determine the rate of exposure of workers in an X-ray room. Examining urethrocystography simulations were performed using an ionization chamber, to verify the exposure rate, and thermoluminescent dosimeters in each cap to check the effective dose in specific locations of the individual's body occupationally exposed in the examen. The position of the examination table was varied during exposure to assess whether this has influence on the dose received by the workers. The results showed a large decrease in dose when the table position is horizontally. Increased distance spreaders of the patient had a significant decrease in exposure rate. The majority of results presented below recommended limits, but the dosimeter positioned at the height of the thorax on the spreader lens closest to the patient exceeded this limit. Therefore, work procedures should always be observed in order to keep within the limits of a security level.

The dose limits are set in terms of protection quantities. However, these quantities are not directly measurable. Thus, it is necessary to calculate the dose conversion coefficients (CCs), which relate these protection quantities with measurable physical quantities. In this work, were calculated CCs for equivalent dose and effective dose in terms of air kerma in a male voxel simulator at standing and sitting postures in air and vacuum environments. The Visual Monte Carlo (VMC) code was used to develop irradiation scenarios with a plane source of monoenergetic photons with energy ranging from 0.01 MeV to 2.0 MeV for irradiation geometries anteroposterior (AP), postero-anterior (PA), left lateral (LLAT), right lateral (rlat) and rotational (ROT). In order to observe possible variations between the CCs calculated, these values were compared for each environment and each posture. Were also compared the values of CCs of the simulator in standing posture with the CCs presented in publications 74 and 116 of the ICRP. The comparison between the values of CCs obtained with the simulator in the standing posture used in this work and the values presented in publications 74 and 116 of the ICRP shows variations in practically all organs, due mainly to differences between the simulators used such as organs mass and anatomy. By comparing the CCs values in air and vacuum environments, variations were observed in the CCs up to 83% at low energies (energies below 0.05 MeV). These variations occur mainly in the AP irradiation geometry. There were also significant differences primarily in AP, PA and ROT irradiation geometries, with variations of up to 100% in the CCs between the two postures in 7 of the 18 organs studied. The comparison between the CCs for effective dose between the sitting and standing posture showed differences in irradiation geometries AP, PA and ROT, with variations of up to 53 %. The divergences found in CCs between sitting and standing posture are attributed mainly to the difference in distribution and geometry of the organs when the posture of the simulator is modified. It is verified thus the importance of obtaining dose conversion coefficients using radiation scenarios in which the simulator are in different environments and postures than those found in the literature / Os limites de dose são estabelecidos em termos de grandezas de proteção. Entretanto, essas grandezas não são diretamente mensuráveis. Dessa forma, é necessário o cálculo de coeficientes de conversão de dose (CCs), que relacionam essas grandezas de proteção com grandezas físicas mensuráveis. Neste trabalho foram calculados CCs de dose equivalente e dose efetiva em termos de kerma no ar em um simulador voxel masculino na postura em pé e sentada em ambientes com ar e vácuo. Foi utilizado o código Visual Monte Carlo (VMC) para elaborar os cenários de irradiação com uma fonte plana de fótons monoenergéticos variando sua energia de 0,01 MeV até 2,0 MeV para as geometrias de irradiação antero-posterior (AP), postero-anterior (PA), lateral esquerdo (LLAT), lateral direito (RLAT) e rotacional (ROT). A fim de observar possíveis variações entre os CCs calculados, os valores para cada ambiente e cada postura foram comparados. Também foram comparados os valores dos CCs do simulador na postura em pé com os CCs apresentados nas publicações nº 74 e nº 116 da ICRP. A comparação entre os valores dos CCs obtidos com o simulador na postura em pé utilizado neste trabalho e os valores apresentados nas publicações nº 74 e nº 116 da ICRP apresenta divergências em praticamente todos os órgãos, em virtude, principalmente, de diferenças entre os simuladores utilizados, como massa e anatomia dos órgãos. Quando comparados os valores dos CCs em ambientes com vácuo e ar, foram observadas variações de até 83 % em baixas energias, energias abaixo de 0,05 MeV. Estas variações ocorrem principalmente na geometria de irradiação AP. Observaram-se, também, diferenças significativas principalmente nas geometrias de irradiação AP, PA e ROT, com variações de até 100 %, nos CCs entre as duas posturas em 7 órgãos dos 18 estudados. A comparação entre os CCs de dose efetiva entre a postura em pé e sentada apresentaram diferenças significativas nas geometrias de irradiação AP, PA e ROT, com variações de até 53 %. As divergências encontradas nos CCs entre a postura em pé e sentada são atribuídas principalmente à diferença na distribuição e geometria dos órgãos quando a postura do simulador é modificada. Verifica-se, dessa forma, a importância da obtenção de coeficientes de conversão de doses utilizando cenários de radiação nos quais os simuladores estão em ambientes e posturas diferentes daquelas encontradas na literatura.