On the Florida peninsula, the soapberry bug (Jadera haematoloma) has been able to colonize the golden rain tree, Koelreuteria elegans, since the introduction of this invasive tree only a few decades ago. The populations feeding on the new host have been rapidly differentiating from the native populations. Possibly the most dramatic differentiation is that of the beak (mouthpart) length. Derived populations showed shorter beaks more appropriate for feeding on the flattened pods of the new host. Previous studies have shown that the divergence of the beak length has a genetic basis and involves non-additive genetic effects. However, to date, the soapberry bug divergence has not been studied at the molecular level. In the current study, I have generated a three-generation pedigree from crossing the long-beaked and short-beaked ecomorphs to construct a de novo linkage map and to locate putative QTL controlling beak length and body size in J. haematoloma. Using the AFLP technique and a two-way pseudo-testcross design I produced two parental maps. The maternal map covered six linkage groups and the paternal map covered five; the expected number of chromosomes was recovered and the putative X chromosome was identified. For beak length, QTL analyses revealed one significant QTL. Three QTL were found for body size. Interestingly, the most significant body size QTL co-localized with the beak length QTL, suggesting linkage disequilibrium or pleiotropic effects of related traits. Through single marker regression analysis, nine single markers that could not be placed on the map were also found to be associated with either trait. However, I found no evidence for epistasis. Overall, my findings support an oligogenic model of genetic control on beak length and body size, and the underlying genetic architectures were complex. This study is the first to look at the molecular basis underlying adaptive traits in the soapberry bug, and contributes to understanding of the genetic changes involved in early stages of ecological divergence.

Reproduction is among the most dynamic and rapidly evolving genetic systems across sexual taxa. However, the evolutionary mechanisms that drive reproductive traits during the early stages of species divergence are relatively unknown. Using a systems-level, comparative functional genomics approach, I investigate the role of selection, drift, and genomic architecture in promoting the rapid divergence of reproductive systems in Drosophila. I develop a new comparative genomics database, flyDIVaS (Divergence and Selection in Drosophila), an updateable database for identifying patterns and processes involved in species conservation and divergence. I show that tissue-specific genes play a disproportionate role in driving species level divergence and, in particular, that genes specific to male reproductive tissue are among the most rapidly evolving. Using two deeply sequenced populations of Drosophila melanogaster, I reveal that adaptation is widespread among male-specific genes and identify local signatures of selection that have evolved in less than 500 years on sperm motility. In Drosophila mercatorum, a fruit fly capable of facultative parthenogenesis, I find recent signatures of protein changes involved with centrosomal and meiotic functions, and identify early genomic signatures of male degeneration. Among laboratory strains of Drosophila melanogaster, I identify adaptive signatures on neurogenic genes that have recently been domesticated during the last century . Finally, I explore the role of genomic architecture in shaping such reproductive functional systems by developing a novel hypothesis that rapid changes in behavior, such as those found in diverse mating preferences, is a function of the size of the neurogenome. The results presented in this dissertation point toward the importance of selection, drift, and genomic architecture in driving rapid functional change which, together, promote the generation of species diversity via the formation of reproductive barriers in early species divergence. / Biology

At broad scales, community ecologists study how biogeographic factors like environmental dissimilarity and geographic distance influence community assembly and composition. At small scales, community ecologists study how one or several species interact to determine habitat partitioning and coexistence. In this dissertation, I present studies at both scales. Chapter One investigates community assembly across the Caribbean, Central, and South American radiations of Anolis lizards and Eleutherodactylid frogs to test whether oceanic islands are unique in their assembly processes. Such uniqueness is suggested by high levels of endemism on islands; however, comparable levels of endemism can be found in mainland communities. I modeled the rate of species turnover between mainland communities, with respect to geographic distance and environmental dissimilarity, and then used the mainland model to predict turnover among islands. Turnover among island communities was significantly higher than predicted from the mainland model, confirming the long-held but untested assumption that island assemblages accumulate biodiversity differently than their mainland counterparts. Chapter Two reviews the evidence for ecological character displacement (ECD), an evolutionary process whereby two resource competitors diverge from one another in phenotype and resource use, facilitating coexistence in a community. I find that, despite current scientific opinion, the evidence for ECD is equivocal; most cases of ECD pattern fail to rule out processes alternative to resource competition that could create the same pattern. I conclude that better evidence may come from real time tests of ECD. Chapters Three and Four describe just such a test in small island populations of Anolis carolinensis. In Chapter Three, I find that small island populations of A. carolinensis that have come into sympatry with a novel competitor, the invasive A. sagrei, shift their habitat use to become more arboreal, compared to allopatric populations. Consistent with prediction, individuals from sympatric populations have larger toepads with additional adhesive scales - a common adaptation to arboreality in Anolis. In Chapter Four, I describe a common garden experiment that finds that the observed toepad divergence is an evolved response, suggesting rates of divergence for toepad area and scale number on par with well known examples of contemporary evolution.

No description available.

A adaptação e a diversificação em sistemas multiespecíficos são crescentemente reconhecidas como processos relevantes para a compreensão da biodiversidade. Nosso objetivo foi investigar como a seleção natural relacionada a interações ecológicas influencia a estrutura, dinâmica e diversificação de assembleias mutualistas. Primeiro, modelamos como mutualismo e competição intraespecífica geram regimes seletivos antagônicos que definem padrões de diversificação. Nossos modelos preveem que em mutualismos de baixa intimidade, nos quais cada organismo têm muitos parceiros individuais, fenótipos extremos têm interações mutualísticas desajustadas em relação à complementaridade de traços, contrabalanceando efeitos diversificadores da competição intraespecífica e restringindo a especiação. Em sistemas de alta intimidade, nos quais mutualismos têm maior impacto adaptativo e cada organismo têm poucos parceiros, tal seleção estabilizadora imposta por mutualismos é reduzida, favorecendo a diversificação. Entretanto, mutualismos de baixa intimidade são mais ricos que mutualismos íntimos na natureza. Sob baixa intimidade de interações, adições de espécies não-aparentadas envolvidas em dinâmicas de convergência constituem explicação plausível para essa discrepância. Em sistemas de alta intimidade, restrições a adições de espécies impostas por histórias coevolutivas estreitamente relacionadas poderiam explicar menores riquezas, apesar do maior potencial de diversificação adaptativa. Em segundo lugar, avaliamos se reconfigurações adaptativas das interações ecológicas podem explicar a variação estrutural de redes mutualistas. Usando um modelo eco-evolutivo, mostramos que a seleção favorecendo trocas de mutualistas e maximizando a abundância das espécies altera propriedades das redes, aumentando seu aninhamento e diminuindo sua estabilidade. Nossos modelos superestimaram o aninhamento em mutualismos de alta intimidade, possivelmente porque não consideramos ligações proibidas impostas por morfologia ou fenologia. Entretanto, as redes simuladas reproduzem aninhamento e modularidade de mutualismos de baixa intimidade, cujas interações são mais flexíveis. Sob competição por mutualistas, as reconfigurações da rede continuam em um dinâmica sem fim, mesmo quando estrutura e a estabilidade atingem níveis assintóticos, o que pode explicar a variação empírica de interações em redes com estruturas temporalmente constantes. Em um terceiro estudo, modelamos como diferentes modos de especiação modificam propriedades de redes mutualistas. Se a especiação resulta em expansão do nicho e as espécies emergentes tornarem-se mais conectadas, o aninhamento aumenta e a modularidade diminui, frequentemente resultando em redes instáveis. Se a especiação causar retração do nicho e as espécies emergentes tornarem-se menos conectadas, aninhamento e modularidade aumentam, promovendo estabilidade. Diferentes regras de sobreposição de nicho entre espécies emergentes não alteraram esses resultados. Assim, retrações de nicho via divergência adaptativa, como deslocamentos de caracteres na especiação simpátrica, devem gerar espécies incorporáveis às redes mutualistas sem desestabilização. Entretanto, expansões de nicho via adaptações a recursos complementares em alopatria devem desestabilizar as redes quando do contato secundário. Efeitos potencialmente amplos de um único evento de especiação mostram que estudos relacionando diversificação e dinâmica são relevantes para o debate sobre complexidade e estabilidade de redes ecológicas. Concluímos que a compreensão mecanística sobre as origens e a manutenção da biodiversidade depende da integração de teorias ecológicas e evolutivas com base em dados empíricos, como fizemos aqui ao modelar dinâmicas adaptativas de interações ecológicas usando informações sobre a organização e história natural de assembleias mutualistas / Adaptation and diversification in species-rich systems are increasingly recognized as relevant processes to improve our understanding on biodiversity. Our aim was to investigate how natural selection related to ecological interactions shapes the structure, dynamics and diversification of mutualistic assemblages. First, we modeled how mutualism and intraspecific competition generate antagonistic selective regimes that define patterns of diversification. Ours models predict that in low intimacy mutualisms, in which each organism has various individual partners, extreme phenotypes experience trait mismatches in mutualistic interactions that oppose the diversifying effects of intraspecific competition and constrain speciation. In high intimacy systems, in which mutualistic interactions have a higher impact on fitness and each organism has fewer partners, such stabilizing selection is reduced, favoring diversification. However, low intimacy mutualisms are richer than high intimacy mutualisms in nature. Under low interaction intimacy, additions of non-related species involved in trait convergence dynamics are a plausible explanation for such a discrepancy. In high intimacy systems, restrictions to species additions imposed by tight coevolutionary histories could explain lower richnesses despite of a higher potential for adaptive diversification. In a subsequent study, we evaluated whether the adaptive rewiring of ecological interactions explain the structural variation of mutualistic networks. Using an eco-evolutionary model, we show that selection favoring continuous interaction switching that maximizes species abundances changes network properties, increasing nestedness and decreasing stability. Our models overestimated nestedness in high intimacy mutualisms, probably because we did not consider forbidden links imposed by morphology or phenology. However, simulated networks reproduce nestedness and modularity of low intimacy mutualism, in which interactions are more flexible. Under competition for mutualists, rewires continue in an endless dynamics, even when the structure and stability reach asymptotic levels at the network level, which could explain the empirical variation of interactions in networks showing temporally constant structures. In a third study, we modeled effects of different modes of speciation on mutualistic network properties. If speciation results in niche width expansion and emerging species become more connected, nestedness increases and modularity decreases, often resulting in unstable networks. If speciation causes niche width retractions and emerging species become less connected, both nestedness and modularity increase, promoting stability. Different rules of niche overlap between emerging rules did not change these results. Therefore, niche retractions via adaptive divergence, such as character displacement in sympatric speciation, can generate species that will enter local networks without destabilizing them. However, niche width expansions due to adaptation to additional resources in allopatry should destabilize networks if secondary contact between emerging species occur. High magnitude potential effects of a single speciation event show that studies relating diversification and dynamics are relevant to the debate on complexity and stability of ecological networks. We concluded that the mechanistic understanding of biodiversity origins and maintenance relies on the integration between ecological and evolutionary theories based on empirical data, as wed did here by modeling the adaptive dynamics of ecological interactions using information on the structure and natural history of mutualistic assemblages

En augmentant la distribution des ressources dans l'espace, la fragmentation du paysage contraint le mouvement des organismes. Deux types de stratégies adaptatives antagonistes ont été mises en évidence en réponse à cette pression : une diminution ou une augmentation de la propension et de la capacité des organismes à se déplacer. La majorité de la littérature traite de la diminution des mouvements en réponse à la fragmentation du paysage. En étudiant un organisme contraint de traverser la matrice pour achever son cycle de vie (i.e. Bufo bufo), je me suis intéressée à la stratégie d'augmentation et d'optimisation des mouvements en réponse à la fragmentation. Peu d'études permettent de conclure sur l'existence de plasticité phénotypique, d'effets maternels ou d'évolution des traits liés au mouvement en réponse à la fragmentation. J'ai ainsi inclus dans ma démarche expérimentale des élevages en conditions standardisées afin d'étudier l'évolution des caractéristiques du mouvement en réponse à la fragmentation. Plus précisément, j'ai étudié l'évolution des capacités de navigation en m'intéressant à la vitesse dévolution, à la base magnétique et à l'influence de l'orientation vectorielle sur la dispersion. Je me suis également intéressée à l'évolution du comportement exploratoire en réponse à la fragmentation / Landscape fragmentation increases resource distribution and constrains animal movements. Two kinds of adaptive strategy have been revealed in response to this selective pressure: an increase or a decrease of animal capacity and propensity to move. I studied the resistance strategy (i.e. increase of movements) which is poorly documented in the literature. To do so I focused on an organism facing the need to cross the matrix to achieve its life cycle (Bufo bufo). Only a few studies enable to disentangle phenotypic plasticity, maternal effect and evolution of movement characteristics. I used common garden rearing and cross-breeding experiments in order to focus on the evolutionary dimension of movement characteristics changes induced by landscape fragmentation. More precisely, I studied the evolution of navigation capacities by focusing on vector orientation, its evolutionary rate, its genetic basis, its magnetic basis and its influence on dispersal. I also studied the evolution of the exploratory behaviour in response to landscape fragmentation and searched for convergent evolution of this behaviour

Invasive plants can displace native species, deteriorate native forest, and change plant communities and ecosystem functions. Native plant populations are fundamentally impacted by invasive species because of the interactions between invasive species and native plants. This study focuses on understanding the extent, mechanisms and consequences of interaction between a non-indigenous invader Ailanthus altissima and its functionally similar native species Robinia pseudoacacia in the Mid-Appalachian region, from an individual scale to a regional scale. These two subject species are common and coexist in early-successional eastern deciduous forest. The interactions between these two common species are important to community structure and canopy tree regeneration. To address the type and extent of interactions of these two species, a greenhouse experiment utilizing various species proportions, nutrient levels and seed sources was performed. In addition, a common-garden experiment with various species densities and proportions over three consecutive growing seasons was performed in a more natural condition than that of the greenhouse experiment. We found at the seedling stage, the dominant interaction was competition, and R. pseudoacacia was the winner both above- and belowground. The allelopathic compounds of A. altissima may have inhibited nodulation of R. pseudoacacia. Ailanthus altissima seedlings from its native region had slightly stronger competitive abilities compared with the seedlings from its invaded range. In the common garden experiment, R. pseudoacacia plants grew quicker than A. altissima, but A. altissima inhibited the growth of R. pseudoacacia by interspecific competition. The negative impact of A. altissima on R. pseudoacacia became larger as time progressed. To assess the community-level consequences of the two species, we conducted a forest mapping and a complete target-tree-based forest survey, and analyzed regional-scale data from the Forest Inventory Analysis Data Base. The two target species were significantly associated with themselves and with each other. Community species composition and diversity were significantly different across sites. A negative impact of both species on the understory community diversity and tree regeneration at the neighborhood scale was detected; while at a regional level, tree diversity in the FIA plots with either A. altissima or R. pseudoacacia was higher than the reference plots. / Ph. D.

L'intensification de l'activité agricole depuis la deuxième moitié du 20e siècle, notamment l'utilisation de produits agrochimiques dans les bassins versants, a affecté la qualité des ressources d’eau douce. Des traces de produits agrochimiques, tels que les pesticides et les engrais, sont transportées par ruissellement de surface ou lixiviation, provoquant des effets directs ou indirects sur les organismes aquatiques. Se trouvant à la base des réseaux trophiques aquatiques, les micro-organismes sont des habitants indispensables dans les écosystèmes d’eau douce, où ils jouent également un rôle important pour les services écosystémiques en tant que propulseurs des cycles biogéochimiques. En faisant partie de l'écosystème, les communautés bactériennes sont susceptibles aux perturbations anthropiques croissantes qui se déroulent dans leurs milieux. Le but principal de cette thèse est d'étudier l'effet de perturbations agricoles simulées sur les bactéries d'eau douce par une approche expérimentale avec des réservoirs extérieurs (mésocosmes) et en utilisant le séquençage d’ADN à haut débit. Des mésocosmes ont été remplis de 1 000 litres d'eau provenant d'un lac bien préservé et, ensuite, ont été traités avec des pesticides largement utilisés au monde en combinaison avec des engrais. Les trois études présentées dans cette thèse explorent les réponses du bactérioplancton dans cette même expérience sous différents angles : la première (chapitre II) s'est concentrée sur les réponses écologiques des communautés bactériennes à de différentes combinaisons de produits agrochimiques; la deuxième (chapitre III) a examiné si les gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques pourraient changer le succès d'espèces soumises à une grave contamination par un herbicide et, finalement, la troisième (chapitre IV) a suivi les altérations évolutives parmi les espèces ayant des réponses écologiques similaires par rapport au traitement avec l’herbicide. En mettant l'accent sur la réaction des communautés exposées à un mélange de produits agrochimiques, le chapitre II complémente des études écotoxicologiques, qui se concentrent traditionnellement sur les réponses d'une seule espèce à des produits chimiques isolés. Les mésocosmes ont été exposés à de différentes concentrations d'un herbicide à base de glyphosate et d'un insecticide néonicotinoïde, séparés ou en combinaison, en plus d'apports faibles ou élevés en nutriments. Le séquençage des amplicons du gène de l'ARNr 16S et la prédiction des variantes de séquences ont étés faits pour étudier la diversité taxonomique, ainsi que le profilage de l'utilisation microbienne des sources de carbone pour décrire les changements de diversité fonctionnelle à travers le temps. Les résultats ont révélé que la stabilité des communautés microbiennes varie en fonction du type et de l'intensité de la perturbation. Bien que les communautés bactériennes n’aient pas réagi à l’introduction de l’insecticide ou d’engrais, elles sont modifiées de manière intensive sous des concentrations élevées de l'herbicide à base de glyphosate. Des aspects distincts de la diversité des communautés ont réagi différemment aux perturbations : alors que la composition fonctionnelle est restée stable face aux perturbations, la composition taxonomique au niveau taxonomique le plus fin a été sensible au glyphosate et résiliente aux échelles taxonomiques plus larges (c'est-à-dire, du genre au phylum). Ces résultats soulignent la complexité des réponses écologiques et fournissent des évidences de la redondance fonctionnelle concernant l'utilisation des sources de carbone dans les communautés microbiennes. Le chapitre III a testé l'hypothèse selon laquelle les gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques, en particulier les pompes d'efflux, favorisent la survie des bactéries en présence de l'herbicide à base de glyphosate. Cette hypothèse n'a été confirmée que par des études expérimentales en laboratoire avec des cultures bactériennes et plus récemment dans les microbiomes du sol. C'était donc la première fois que cette hypothèse a été testée dans un système aquatique. Au chapitre II, on a observé que l'herbicide à base de glyphosate favorisait la domination de nombreux taxons de l'embranchement des protéobactéries, dont Agrobacterium, un genre qui code pour l'enzyme cible du glyphosate appartenant à la classe des résistants. Cependant, d'autres espèces codant pour la classe de l'enzyme sensible au glyphosate étaient également favorisées, ce qui implique le rôle d'autres mécanismes de résistance. Dans le chapitre III, les analyses de métagénomes et des génomes assemblés par métagénomes ont révélé une augmentation de la fréquence de gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques après l'administration de fortes doses de l'herbicide. D’ailleurs, l'abondance relative des espèces présentes après qu’une forte dose de l'herbicide a été administrée était mieux prédite par la présence de gènes d'efflux d'antibiotiques dans leur génome que par la présence du gène codant pour l'enzyme résistante au glyphosate. Ces résultats renforcent les études récentes et contribuent aux premières évidences provenant des communautés bactériennes d'eau douce. L'objectif du chapitre IV était de vérifier si les bactéries ayant la même réponse écologique à la contamination par l'herbicide à base de glyphosate présenteraient également des réponses évolutives similaires. En plus, ce chapitre avait pour but de contribuer aux preuves expérimentales du modèle de l'écotype stable, un modèle proéminent sur l'évolution et l'origine de la diversité dans les espèces bactériennes. On a supposé que les espèces favorisées par l'herbicide subiraient des balayages sélectifs éliminant la variation génétique dans le génome, comme le prédit le modèle évolutif de l'écotype stable. Pour tester cette hypothèse, des polymorphismes nucléotidiques ont été quantifiés au sein des populations bactériennes au cours du temps dans 12 populations bien représentées dans le séquençage métagénomique qui a été fait dans le chapitre III. Contrairement à ce que l'on attendait, les populations écologiquement prospères ont montré une variété de réponses évolutives et la diversité n'a été supprimée que dans quelques-unes d'entre elles. Les résultats montrent que d'autres mécanismes évolutifs qui maintiennent la variation génétique, tels que des balayages sélectifs à l'échelle du gène plutôt qu’à l'échelle du génome, peuvent être plus souvent impliqués dans le succès des espèces qui survivent au stress anthropique. Mis ensemble, ces résultats soulignent la complexité des réponses bactériennes face à une perturbation anthropique au niveau des communautés, des populations, des gènes et des allèles. Les connaissances apportées par cette thèse peuvent améliorer les évaluations des risques de déversements accidentels en eau douce. Le changement permanent à des niveaux taxonomiques fins et la sélection croisée pour les gènes de résistance aux antibiotiques en présence de concentrations élevées d'herbicides indiquent des risques qui devraient être mieux compris par rapport à leur prédominance et les mécanismes qui les causent. D’ailleurs, la dynamique évolutive décrite ici sur une échelle de temps de courte durée fournit des données pour soutenir une importante théorie sur la différenciation et la spéciation bactériennes. / Agriculture intensification in the second half of the 20th century, particularly the use of agrochemicals within watersheds, has affected freshwater quality. Traces of agrochemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers, reach freshwater systems through runoff or leaching, causing direct or indirect effects on aquatic organisms. Microorganisms are essential inhabitants of aquatic systems as they are at the foundation of food webs and play roles in ecosystem functioning as important drivers of biogeochemical cycles. By being part of the ecosystem, bacterial communities are subject to the increasing anthropogenic perturbations in their environment. The main objective of this thesis is to investigate the effect of simulated agricultural perturbations on freshwater bacteria through an experimental approach with outdoor tanks (mesocosms) and using high-throughput DNA sequencing. Mesocosms were filled with 1,000 L of water from a pristine freshwater lake and treated with widely used pesticides in combination with fertilizers. The three main studies in this thesis explored the bacterioplankton responses in this experiment through different angles: the first study (chapter II) focused on ecological responses to a combination of agrochemicals; the second (chapter III) explored how changes in antibiotic resistance genes could explain the ecological success of species facing severe herbicide contamination and the third study (chapter IV) tracked evolutionary changes among species with similar ecological responses to the herbicide treatment. Chapter II aimed to complement ecotoxicological studies, that traditionally focus on single species responses to individual chemicals, by focusing on communities exposed to a mixture of agrochemicals, as typically observed in nature. For that, the mesocosms were exposed to different concentrations of a glyphosate-based herbicide and a neonicotinoid insecticide, isolated or in combination, in addition to low or high nutrient inputs. Sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons and inference of amplicon sequence variants were done to study taxonomic diversity, as well as profiling microbial use of carbon sources to describe functional diversity changes through time. The results revealed that the stability of microbial communities varies according to the type and intensity of the disturbance. The highest dose of the glyphosate-based herbicide was the major driver of ecological responses within bacterial communities, which were not altered by the insecticide nor by nutrient fertilization. Distinct aspects of community diversity responded differently to perturbation: while functional composition remained stable in face of disturbances, taxonomic composition was sensitive to glyphosate at the finest taxonomic level and resilient at higher taxonomic units (i.e. genus to phylum). These results highlight the complexity of ecological responses and provide evidence of functional redundancy regarding the use of carbon sources in these communities. Chapter III tested the hypothesis that antibiotic resistance genes, particularly efflux pumps, would favour bacterial survival in the presence of the glyphosate-based herbicide. This hypothesis has only been confirmed through experimental laboratory studies with bacterial cultures and more recently in soil microbiomes, it was thus the first time it was tested in an aquatic system. As observed in chapter II, glyphosate-based herbicide favoured the dominance of many taxa of the phylum Proteobacteria, including Agrobacterium, a genus that encodes the glyphosate-resistant target enzyme. However, other species encoding the glyphosate-sensitive version of the enzyme were also favoured, implying other resistance mechanisms. In chapter III, the analysis of metagenomes and metagenome-assembled genomes revealed an increased frequency of antibiotic resistance genes following high doses of the herbicide. Additionally, the relative abundance of species after a severe herbicide pulse was better predicted by the presence of antibiotic efflux genes in their genome than by the presence of the gene encoding the resistant glyphosate target enzyme. These results reinforce recent studies and contribute to the first evidence from freshwater bacterial communities. The goal of chapter IV was to test if bacteria with the same ecological response to the contamination with the glyphosate-based herbicide would also show similar evolutionary responses. Furthermore, this chapter aimed to contribute to experimental evidence to the stable ecotype model, a prominent model on the evolution and origin of diversity in bacterial species. If assumptions of the stable ecotype model were confirmed by the experiment, species favoured by the herbicide would experience selective sweeps purging genetic variation across the genome. To test this hypothesis, single nucleotide variants were quantified within bacterial populations over time in 12 populations well-represented in the metagenomic sequencing that was performed in chapter III. Differently than expected, ecologically successful populations showed a variety of evolutionary responses and diversity was purged only in a few of them. The results show that other evolutionary mechanisms that maintain genetic variation, such as gene-wide specific sweeps rather than genome-wide sweeps, may be more often involved in the success of species surviving anthropogenic stress. Together, these results highlight the complexity of bacterial responses in the face of an anthropogenic disturbance at the level of communities, populations, genes, and alleles. The knowledge provided by this thesis may improve assessments of the potential risks of accidental spills in freshwater. The permanent change at fine taxonomic levels and the cross-selection for antibiotic resistance genes in the presence of high concentrations of herbicide indicate risks that should be better understood regarding their predominance and causing mechanisms. Moreover, the evolutionary dynamics here described in a short-term time scale provide observational data to support a theoretical background on bacterial differentiation and speciation.

<p>  </p> <p>Evolution is the foundation for all of biology. However, our approaches and understanding of evolution—simply, the change of allele frequencies from one generation to the next—have themselves evolved over time. In this dissertation I explore multiple approaches to understand evolution and the consequences of evolution across variable scales and study organisms. First, I use meta-analytic techniques and Bayesian hierarchical models to investigate the phenotypic consequences of two forms of cryptic local adaptation, co- and countergradient variation, by leveraging a decades-old quantitative genetics approach (Chapter 1). I find large effects for both co- and countergradient variation, however they are obscured in natural settings by concurrent large environmental effects. I also show that these large effects are ubiquitous across phenotypic traits, organisms, and environmental gradients, suggesting that while similar phenotypes may be the evolutionary end point, the mechanisms to achieve those phenotypes likely vary. In the following chapter I explore the rapid evolution of a unique and understudied species introduction, pink salmon (<em>Oncorhynchus gorbuscha</em>) in the Great Lakes. Pink salmon were introduced into Lake Superior in a single introduction event and have broken two obligate life histories, anadromy (though they treat the Great Lakes like surrogate oceans) and their fixed two-year life cycle, making them ripe subjects for contemporary evolution. Using whole-genome sequence data, I first investigate the effects of a genetic drift in the form of a bottleneck at introduction and characterize the subsequent loss of genetic diversity (Chapter 2). I show that despite a large loss of genetic diversity, pink salmon also rapidly adapted to their novel environment based on signals of putative selection across numerous regions of the genome, particularly in a period gene associated with their daily circadian clock (<em>per2</em>). Next, I explore how genome structure likely aided adaptation by pink salmon to the Great Lakes, providing evidence that a supergene (~29 Mbp) containing an inversion on chromosome 10 swept to near fixation in the Great Lakes (Chapter 3) and likely aided in osmoregulatory adaptation to this novel environment. Finally, I end with a short perspective chapter (Chapter 4) where I highlight potential future research directions for each of the previous chapters. Together, this research investigates the drivers and consequences of evolution across multiple scales and shows the powerful effect of genetic drift and genetic adaptation in shaping the genomic and phenotypic attributes of populations.</p>