Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2018-05-28T11:10:02Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Wesley Luis Carvalhaes - 2009.pdf: 16510526 bytes, checksum: 395d74c02a1dfcca64aee18937eb01f3 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2018-05-28T11:39:05Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Wesley Luis Carvalhaes - 2009.pdf: 16510526 bytes, checksum: 395d74c02a1dfcca64aee18937eb01f3 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-05-28T11:39:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Wesley Luis Carvalhaes - 2009.pdf: 16510526 bytes, checksum: 395d74c02a1dfcca64aee18937eb01f3 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-10-08 / The purpose of this work is to discuss the Portuguese textbook (LDP – Livro Didático de Português) using their introductory texts as references. These texts are viewed as processes for reaching the student-subject and are based upon theoretical and analytical principles of the Discourse Analysis (AD – Análise do Discurso). This research is part of the requirements for the Master’s Degree program at the Federal University of Goiás Language and Linguistics School. It covers the introductory texts in four distinct moments: 1) before 1980; 2) the 1980’s; 3) the 1990’s, and 4) from 2000 to 2006. Not all of the selected textbooks incorporate introductory texts, what reveals a discourse that confirms the student-subject. This study historically depicts the Discourse Analysis as a field of expertise connected to the language studies. It makes a historical survey of the textbooks in general, especially the LDP, analyzing the introductory texts under the lights of the discourse theories, identifying the student subject-form presented in, and by, the investigated texts. The introductory texts were written in diverse ways, since the discourses, the discourse formations, and the imaginary formations modified themselves due to social-historical relations. As a consequence of this movement, the figure of the student was subject to a metamorphosis through each text. Therefore, changes in the discourses become guidelines to the. These transformations in the discourse are materialized by the introductory texts, bringing up LDP concepts such as the profile of the student, and the language and Portuguese teaching in each period. These text analysis allow for multi-angled results: 1) language as an abstract set of rules and as an instrument of communication; 2) language as a way of social interaction, 3) language viewed as from being a reproduction of linguistic models, supervised by the teacher, to a significant activity; 4) the student faced as from both a source and receptacle for information, to acting protagonist of the process for the construction of knowledge. The introductory texts show a notion of language and language teaching, and delineate an image of the student. However, it is necessary to assume a critical view regarding the manner the LDP sees the student, accepting that these images are close either to discourse formations common to the school environment or to the world of editorial business. This research contributes to the area of school practice, especially the teaching of Portuguese, approaching the textbooks as both conditioning and determining elements, especially regarding the configuration of quite a subjective element: the student. / Este trabalho objetiva fazer uma abordagem discursiva do livro didático de português (LDP), tomando como objeto de estudo os textos de apresentação, tratando-os como processos de objetivação do sujeito aluno com base nos dispositivos teóricos e analíticos da Análise do Discurso. A pesquisa vincula-se ao curso de mestrado do Programa de Pós-graduação em Letras e Linguística da Universidade Federal de Goiás, e abrange textos de apresentação de LDP de quatro momentos: anos anteriores a 1980; década de 1980; década de 1990 e anos entre 2000 e 2006. Dos LDP selecionados, nem todos trazem textos de apresentação e essa ausência também revela um discurso que configura o sujeito aluno. O estudo traça um esboço histórico da constituição da AD como uma disciplina própria dos estudos da linguagem; faz um inventário da historicidade do livro didático, particularmente do LDP, e situa os textos de apresentação como gênero discursivo; analisa os textos de apresentação, à luz de teorias discursivas e identifica a forma-sujeito aluno constituída nos e pelos textos analisados. Os textos de apresentação dos LDP analisados foram escritos de modos diversos, pois os discursos, as formações discursivas e as formações imaginárias, em razão das relações sócio-históricas, transformaram-se. Como consequência desse movimento, metamorfoseouse a imagem de aluno presente em cada um dos textos de apresentação analisados. Há, portanto, uma alteração dos discursos que condicionam a elaboração do material didático. Essa transformação discursiva é materializada nos textos de apresentação os quais evidenciam, em cada período abordado, uma noção de língua e de ensino de português, bem como uma imagem do aluno objetivado pelo LDP. A análise desses discursos nos possibilita um desenho diacrônico: de língua como conjunto abstrato de regras e instrumento de comunicação a língua como meio de interação social; de ensino como reprodução de modelos linguísticos supervisionada pelo professor a ensino como atividade significativa; e de aluno como reprodutor e receptáculo de informações a aluno protagonista do processo de construção do conhecimento. Os textos de apresentação mostram uma noção de língua e ensino e configuram uma imagem do aluno. É necessário, no entanto, assumir uma posição crítica em relação à variação do modo de o LDP ver o aluno, entendendo que essa imagem aproxima-se tanto de formações discursivas próprias do contexto escolar, quanto de outras como aquelas ligadas ao campo do comércio editorial e dos negócios. O desenvolvimento desta pesquisa insere-se no âmbito das contribuições a respeito da prática escolar, notadamente ao ensino de língua portuguesa, tratando o material didático como um elemento condicionante e determinante dessa prática, especialmente no que se relaciona à configuração de uma subjetividade: o aluno.

As principais incapacidades funcionais que se observam após o Acidente Vascular Encefálico (AVE), sob o ponto de vista clínico, decorrem da hemiparesia, da incoordenação, da hipertonia espástica dos membros superior e inferior contralaterais à lesão e da fraqueza ipsilateral e contralateral ao hemisfério lesado. Evidências sugerem que o aprendizado e a realização de tarefas motoras de habilidade podem induzir mudanças comportamentais e neurofisiológicas, o que ocorre tanto em animais intactos quanto naqueles submetidos às lesões do SNC. Nesse sentido, alguns trabalhos evidenciam a participação da atividade dendrítica, observada pelo aumento da imunorreatividade a MAP2, induzida por experiências comportamentais. Sendo assim, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o desempenho motor e a expressão da MAP2 no córtex motor primário, em ratos sham ou submetidos à HIC e aos treinamentos de habilidade do alcance (TH) ou ao treinamento de não-habilidade (TNH). Para tanto, ratos Wistar adultos foram inicialmente adaptados às diferentes tarefas motoras empregadas ao longo de três semanas, sendo, posteriormente, submetidos à cirurgia de indução da hemorragia intracerebral (HIC) por meio da administração intra-estriatal de colagenase tipo IV ou de veículo (animais Sham) (S). Em seguida, os animais dos grupos S_TH e HIC_TH foram submetidos ao treinamento da tarefa de habilidade do alcance e preensão, os animais dos grupos S_TNH e HIC_TNH foram submetidos ao treinamento da tarefa de não-habilidade e os animais S_ST e HIC_ST não receberam nenhum tipo de treinamento durante 4 semanas. Ao longo desse período, os animais foram testados pelo teste do Staircase quanto ao desempenho motor ao final da 2° e 4° semana de treinamento. Encerrado o período de treinamento, os animais foram profundamente anestesiados, perfundidos e tiveram seus encéfalos processados para a análise imunoistoquímica. Os resultados mostram que a realização da tarefa de habilidade do alcance e preensão foi capaz de aumentar a imunorreatividade da MAP2 no córtex motor primário (M1) em ambos os hemisférios, tanto em animais lesados quanto em animais não-lesados. Além disso, os animais HIC e HIC_TNH apresentaram também aumento da imunorreatividade à MAP2 em ambos os hemisférios. Porém, apenas os animais HIC_TH apresentaram recuperação funcional dos movimentos do membro anterior afetado, avaliados pelo teste comportamental. Concluindo, o presente estudo demonstra que o treino de habilidade induz plasticidade dendrítica no M1 em condições normalidade e lesão e, como estratégia de reabilitação, mostra-se superior ao treino de não-habilidade, na recuperação funcional do membro anterior após a HIC experimental. / Under clinical view, the main functional impairment observed after stroke is resulting from the hemiparesis, incoordination, spastic hypertonia and from ipsilateral and contralateral weakness . Evidences suggest that learning and achievement of motor tasks ability may induce behavioral and neurophysiological changes, which occur in both intact and injured animals. Accordingly, some studies reveal the participation of dendritic activity, observed by increasing the immunoreactivity to MAP2, induced by behavioral experiences. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the motor performance and the expression of MAP2 in primary motor cortex (M1), in rats submitted or not to the IHC and rehabilitation using skilled (SK) or unskilled (US) training. Animals were initially adapted to different motor tasks employed over three weeks, and, subsequently, submitted to surgery for the induction of intracerebral hemorrhage (IHC) by means of administration of bacterial collagenase type IV or vehicle (animals Sham) (S) into the striatum . Then, animals in groups S_SK and IHC_SK were submitted to the training skilled forelimb reaching, animals in groups S_US and IHC_US were submitted to the training unskilled and animals S and HIC received no type of training during 4 weeks. Throughout that period, the reaching ability was tested using the Staircase test at the end of 2nd and 4thweek of training. At the end of the rehabilitation period, animals were deeply anesthetized, perfused and the immunohistochemistry was processed. Results show that the achievement of the task skilled forelimb reaching was able to increase the MAP2 immunoreactivity in primary motor cortex (M1) in both hemispheres, both in injured animals as in intact animals. In addition, animals form IHC and IHC_US groups also presented increased immunoreactivity to MAP2 in both cerebral hemispheres. However, only IHC_SK animals presented functional recovery of movements of the forelimb, evaluated by test behavioral. In conclusion, this study shows that training of skills tasks can induce modifications in M1 under conditions of normality and lesion and, as a strategy of rehabilitation, induced higher plasticity than the unskilled training correlated with functional recovery of the forelimb after IHC experimental.

This thesis focuses on the problem of determining appropriate skeletal configurations for which a virtual animated character moves to desired positions as smoothly, rapidly, and as accurately as possible. During the last decades, several methods and techniques, sophisticated or heuristic, have been presented to produce smooth and natural solutions to the Inverse Kinematics (IK) problem. However, many of the currently available methods suffer from high computational cost and production of unrealistic poses. In this study, a novel heuristic method, called Forward And Backward Reaching Inverse Kinematics (FABRIK), is proposed, which returnsvisually natural poses in real-time, equally comparable with highly sophisticated approaches. It is capable of supporting constraints for most of the known joint types and it can be extended to solve problems with multiple end effectors, multiple targets and closed loops. FABRIK wascompared against the most popular IK approaches and evaluated in terms of its robustness and performance limitations. This thesis also includes a robust methodology for marker prediction under multiple marker occlusion for extended time periods, in order to drive real-time centre of rotation (CoR) estimations. Inferred information from neighbouring markers has been utilised, assuming that the inter-marker distances remain constant over time. This is the firsttime where the useful information about the missing markers positions which are partially visible to a single camera is deployed. Experiments demonstrate that the proposed methodology can effectively track the occluded markers with high accuracy, even if the occlusion persists for extended periods of time, recovering in real-time good estimates of the true joint positions. In addition, the predicted positions of the joints were further improved by employing FABRIK to relocate their positions and ensure a fixed bone length over time. Our methodology is tested against some of the most popular methods for marker prediction and the results confirm that our approach outperforms these methods in estimating both marker and CoR positions. Finally, an efficient model for real-time hand tracking and reconstruction that requires a minimumnumber of available markers, one on each finger, is presented. The proposed hand modelis highly constrained with joint rotational and orientational constraints, restricting the fingers and palm movements to an appropriate feasible set. FABRIK is then incorporated to estimate the remaining joint positions and to fit them to the hand model. Physiological constraints, such as inertia, abduction, flexion etc, are also incorporated to correct the final hand posture. A mesh deformation algorithm is then applied to visualise the movements of the underlying hand skeleton for comparison with the true hand poses. The mathematical framework used for describing and implementing the techniques discussed within this thesis is Conformal GeometricAlgebra (CGA).

Emma Lou Diemer (b. 1927) is a leading American composer, pianist, and educator. Although she composed many outstanding advanced-level piano works, she also believes that composing for other levels is a good discipline for composers. Her two collections Reaching Out and Travels Through Sound contain various contemporary techniques that are highly approachable for intermediate-level students. The purpose of this study is to provide a pedagogical guide to contemporary elements present in these collections, which are ideal for developing skills that can prepare intermediate-level students for more complex modern music. Diemer incorporates such contemporary features as complex rhythms and meters, non-traditional notations, and extended piano techniques, as well as non-traditional textures and forms. These techniques are presented in a compact and informative but not too complicated manner, so that intermediate-level students can master them.

Introduction: External support behaviours, which include leaning (supporting with the non-task hand) or bracing (supporting with the body), are frequently employed by workers in manufacturing settings. However, current ergonomic assessment tools are limited by our limited understanding of these behaviours. Recent studies have investigated these behaviours, however, the designs of these studies are limited in their applicability to real-world scenarios. The purpose of this study was to assess how different task parameters affect the prediction of external support behaviours, as well as the effect of support on task hand, and body, kinematics and kinetics, in a minimally constrained experimental design. Methods: Female participants (n = 18) performed a series of one-handed maximal exertions (in the six orthogonal directions), and one precision task, in four hand Locations. Trials either featured support (as chosen by the participant), or no support. Results & Discussion: Three logistic regression models were developed, with inputs from individual and task characteristics, and they correctly predicted the occurrence of leaning, bracing, or simultaneous leaning and bracing, 74-86% of the time. Leaning and/or bracing were found to provide: 1) oppositional forces to increase task hand force generation, 2) balance, by countering destabilizing moments about the feet, and 3) a reduction in moment arm of the task hand force, with respect to the upper body joints, by bringing the shoulder closer to the task hand. Participants were able to exert 64.8% more force at the task hand as a result of support. Leaning hand placement depended on the task force direction and location. However, the positioning of the leaning hand varied very little. Finally, the precision condition showed that fine motor demands may also affect external support choice. / Thesis / Master of Science in Kinesiology

Visual cues have previously been classified as visual exproprioceptive, when defining the relative position of the body within the environment and are continuously updated while moving (online), and visual exteroceptive when describing static features of the environment which are typically elaborated offline (feedforward). However peripheral visual cues involved in the control of movement have not previously been clearly defined using this classification. Hence the role played by peripheral visual cues in the planning and/or online control of movement remains unclear. The aim of this thesis was to provide a systematic understanding of the importance of peripheral visual cues in several types of movement, namely overground locomotion, adaptive gait, postural stability and reaching and grasping. 3D motion capture techniques were used to collect limb and whole body kinematics during such movements. Visual peripheral cues were manipulated by visual field occlusion conditions or by the employment of point-lights in a dark room. Results showed that the visual cues provided by different parts of the peripheral visual field are mainly used for online fine tuning of limb trajectory towards a target (either a floor-based obstacle or an object to grasp). The absence of peripheral visual cues while moving disrupted the spatio-temporal dynamic relationship between subject and target and resulted in increased margins of safety between body and target and increased time and variability of several dependent measures. These findings argue in favour of the classification of peripheral visual cues as visual exproprioceptive.

Cette thèse aborde la contribution des noyaux gris centraux (NGCs) au contrôle de trois activités motrices importantes que sont la locomotion non obstruée, le contrôle visuoguidé des modifications de la locomotion et celui des mouvements d’atteinte. Ce travail s’inscrit dans le cadre des études antérieures entreprises par notre laboratoire. Celles-ci ont détaillé l’activité de plusieurs aires corticales que nous supposons impliquées dans la planification des modifications locomotrices. De nombreuses cellules enregistrées dans ces études montrent des décharges similaires, quel que soit le membre qui franchit l’obstacle en premier (limb-independent). Ce signal pouvant être transformé en signal dépendant du membre, ou « limb-dependent », pour déterminer, entre autres, quel membre franchira l’obstacle en premier. Nous proposons que les NGCs soient impliqués dans cette transformation et qu’ils puissent contribuer à la fois à la sélection du membre qui enjambera l’obstacle en premier, et à l’initiation des modifications nécessaires à l’enjambement. Pour tester cette hypothèse, nous avons enregistré l’activité pallidale (i.e. noyau entopédonculaire et globus pallidus) de cinq chats lors de la marche sur tapis roulant et lors de l’enjambement des obstacles attachés à celui-ci. Nos résultats ont tout d’abord montré qu’une large population de cellules modulait son activité en accord avec le rythme locomoteur. Un grand nombre d’entre elles présentaient des modifications de leur activité de décharge avant l’initiation de l’enjambement, mais uniquement par rapport au membre controlatéral au site de l’enregistrement. Nous suggérons que ceci serait compatible avec une participation à la sélection du membre. De plus, d’autres cellules déchargeaient avec de brèves bouffées d’activité avant et pendant le franchissement et pourraient fournir les caractéristiques temporelles de celui-ci. La majorité des cellules ont montré des changements reliés à la phase de balancement du membre controlatéral, cependant quelques cellules déchargeaient en rapport avec l’activité de plusieurs membres menant à la suggestion de leur possible contribution à la régulation de la séquence d’activité dans les quatre membres. Pour déterminer si les mêmes cellules contribuaient au mouvement d’atteinte, leur activité a également été enregistrée, après le transfert du chat, sur un appareillage adjacent. La plupart des cellules déchargeaient lors de l’atteinte et pendant la locomotion. Dans certains cas, les modifications étaient très similaires, avec des cellules qui déchargeaient pendant la phase de balancement à la locomotion et pendant la phase de transport pendant l’atteinte. L’activité des autres était plus contrastée, suggérant un contrôle dépendant du contexte et possiblement l’existence de circuits séparés, dans le contrôle de différents mouvements. La tâche d’atteinte nous a aussi permis de corréler les décharges pallidales, avec les ajustements posturaux anticipateurs (APAs) qui précèdent le mouvement, ou avec le mouvement lui-même. Seules quelques cellules ont montré une meilleure corrélation avec les APAs, suggérant un rôle préférentiel du pallidum dans le mouvement spécifiquement, plutôt que dans les activités posturales qui le précèdent. En conclusion, nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité pallidale est étroitement corrélée à différents aspects des activités motrices et suggèrent que le pallidum est bien placé pour, en fonction du contexte, intégrer et transformer le signal cortical et participer au contrôle précis du déplacement et du positionnement du membre. Notons que puisque les plus importants changements d’activité prenaient la forme d’augmentations plutôt que des diminutions, nous discutons la possibilité que ces augmentations puissent sculpter l’activité thalamo-corticale plutôt que relâcher le thalamus de son inhibition. / This thesis addresses the issue of how the basal ganglia contribute to the control of three important motor activities: i) the control of non-obstructed locomotion, ii) the control of visually-guided gait modifications and iii) the control of visually-guided reaching movements. A major impetus for this work comes from previous studies from this laboratory that have detailed the activity of several cortical areas that we postulate are involved in the planning of gait modification. Many of the cells recorded in these studies show similar discharges regardless of which limb is the first to step over the obstacle (limb-independent). This signal therefore has to be transformed into a limb-dependent signal to determine, amongst other issues, which limb will be the first to step over the obstacle. We propose that the basal ganglia are involved in this transformation and that it might make a contribution both in selecting which limb will be the first to step over the obstacle as well as determining temporal aspects of the resulting step. To test this hypothesis, we recorded activity from the pallidum (i.e. globus pallidus and entopedoncular nucleus) of five cats trained to walk on a treadmill and to step over a moving obstacle attached to that treadmill. We showed that a large proportion of pallidal neurons modulated their discharge according to the locomotor rhythm. Many of these neurons discharged before the onset of the step over the obstacle, but only for the contralateral limb to the recording site, compatible with a bias toward selecting that limb. In addition, other cells discharged with brief bursts of activity before and during the step and might contribute to providing temporal information about the upcoming step. The majority of cells showed changes related to the swing phase of the contralateral limb but some cells discharged with respect to the activity in several limbs leading us to suggest a possible contribution to the regulation of the sequence of activity in the four limbs. To determine whether the same cells contributed to discrete reaches, neuronal activity was recorded from the same cells after the transfer of the cat from the treadmill to an adjacent apparatus. Most cells discharged during both behaviours and in some cases the discharges during gait modification and reaching were very similar. In particular, cells discharging during the swing phase of locomotion also discharged during the transport phase of the reach. In other cases, the activity was more disparate, suggesting a context-dependent control over the activity and perhaps the existence of separate circuits for the control of different movements. The reaching task allowed us to correlate the discharge with preparatory postural adjustments that precede movements. Only a few cells showed a better correlation with APAs in comparison with the movement, suggesting a preferential role of the pallidum in focal movements rather than in the preceding postural activities. In conclusion, our results suggest that the activity in the pallidum is tightly correlated with different aspects of motor activity, suggesting that the pallidum is well placed to integrate and transform cortical signals and participate in the precise control of limb displacement. It was noteworthy that the strongest and most frequent changes in activity were increases rather than decreases. We discuss the possibility that these increases in activity might sculpt thalamocortical activity rather than releasing the thalamus from inhibition.

En plus de leurs difficultés motrices bien documentées, les personnes atteintes de la maladie de Parkinson présentent un large éventail de symptômes non moteurs. Ces symptômes non moteurs comprennent des difficultés perceptives, telles que la détection du contraste, la perception du mouvement et les réductions du champ visuel, ainsi que des difficultés cognitives, incluant des déficits de l'attention, du traitement visuospatial et de mémoire. Ces symptômes non moteurs demeurent sous-étudiés et peu compris, et ce, malgré le fait qu’ils jouent un grand rôle dans la qualité de vie des personnes avec la maladie de Parkinson ainsi que dans leur profil clinique. Dresser un profil des atteintes visuo-perceptives dès les premiers stades de la maladie est donc d’une grande importance. Pour ce faire, nous avons testé 14 adultes âgés et 10 adultes avec la maladie de Parkinson sur différents tests mesurant la perception et les capacités cognitives. Nous avons obtenu quelques évidences démontrant des atteintes au niveau de la cognition, mais aucune en lien avec la visuo-perception. De plus, nos résultats quelque peu contradictoires ne nous permettent pas d’infirmer ou confirmer la présence d’interactions entre la visuo-perception et la cognition dans les premiers stades de la maladie de Parkinson. / In addition to their well-documented motor difficulties, individuals afflicted with Parkinson's disease manifest a broad spectrum of non-motor symptoms. These non-motor symptoms encompass perceptual challenges, such as contrast detection, motion perception, and reductions in visual field, alongside cognitive impairments, including deficits in attention, visuospatial processing, and memory. Despite playing a significant role in the quality of life and clinical profile of Parkinson's disease patients, these non-motor symptoms remain insufficiently explored and understood, particularly visuo-perceptual impairments. Profiling visuo-perceptual impairments in the early stages of the disease holds considerable importance. To address this, we assessed 14 elderly adults and 10 adults diagnosed with Parkinson's disease using various tests measuring perception and cognitive abilities. While we obtained some evidence indicating cognitive impairments, none were linked to visuo-perception. Moreover, our somewhat contradictory findings do not allow us to definitively confirm or refute the presence of interactions between visuo-perception and cognition in the early stages of Parkinson's disease.

Une variété de modèles sur le processus de prise de décision dans divers contextes présume que les sujets accumulent les évidences sensorielles, échantillonnent et intègrent constamment les signaux pour et contre des hypothèses alternatives. L'intégration continue jusqu'à ce que les évidences en faveur de l'une des hypothèses dépassent un seuil de critère de décision (niveau de preuve exigé pour prendre une décision). De nouveaux modèles suggèrent que ce processus de décision est plutôt dynamique; les différents paramètres peuvent varier entre les essais et même pendant l’essai plutôt que d’être un processus statique avec des paramètres qui ne changent qu’entre les blocs d’essais. Ce projet de doctorat a pour but de démontrer que les décisions concernant les mouvements d’atteinte impliquent un mécanisme d’accumulation temporelle des informations sensorielles menant à un seuil de décision. Pour ce faire, nous avons élaboré un paradigme de prise de décision basée sur un stimulus ambigu afin de voir si les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1), prémoteur dorsal (PMd) et préfrontal (DLPFc) démontrent des corrélats neuronaux de ce processus d’accumulation temporelle. Nous avons tout d’abord testé différentes versions de la tâche avec l’aide de sujets humains afin de développer une tâche où l’on observe le comportement idéal des sujets pour nous permettre de vérifier l’hypothèse de travail. Les données comportementales chez l’humain et les singes des temps de réaction et du pourcentage d'erreurs montrent une augmentation systématique avec l'augmentation de l'ambigüité du stimulus. Ces résultats sont cohérents avec les prédictions des modèles de diffusion, tel que confirmé par une modélisation computationnelle des données. Nous avons, par la suite, enregistré des cellules dans M1, PMd et DLPFc de 2 singes pendant qu'ils s'exécutaient à la tâche. Les neurones de M1 ne semblent pas être influencés par l'ambiguïté des stimuli mais déchargent plutôt en corrélation avec le mouvement exécuté. Les neurones du PMd codent la direction du mouvement choisi par les singes, assez rapidement après la présentation du stimulus. De plus, l’activation de plusieurs cellules du PMd est plus lente lorsque l'ambiguïté du stimulus augmente et prend plus de temps à signaler la direction de mouvement. L’activité des neurones du PMd reflète le choix de l’animal, peu importe si c’est une bonne réponse ou une erreur. Ceci supporte un rôle du PMd dans la prise de décision concernant les mouvements d’atteinte. Finalement, nous avons débuté des enregistrements dans le cortex préfrontal et les résultats présentés sont préliminaires. Les neurones du DLPFc semblent beaucoup plus influencés par les combinaisons des facteurs de couleur et de position spatiale que les neurones du PMd. Notre conclusion est que le cortex PMd est impliqué dans l'évaluation des évidences pour ou contre la position spatiale de différentes cibles potentielles mais assez indépendamment de la couleur de celles-ci. Le cortex DLPFc serait plutôt responsable du traitement des informations pour la combinaison de la couleur et de la position des cibles spatiales et du stimulus ambigu nécessaire pour faire le lien entre le stimulus ambigu et la cible correspondante. / A variety of models of the decision-making process in many different contexts suggest that subjects sample, accumulate and integrate sensory evidence for and against different alternative choices, until one of those signals exceeds a decision criterion threshold. Early models assumed that this process is static and does not change during a trial or even between trials, but only between blocks of trials when task demands such as speed versus accuracy change. However, newer models suggest that the decision-making process is dynamic and factors that influence the evidence accumulation process might change both between trials in a block and even during a trial. This thesis project aims to demonstrate that decisions about reaching movements emerge from a mechanism of integration of sensory evidence to a decision criterion threshold. We developed a paradigm for decision-making about reach direction based on ambiguous sensory input to search for neural correlates of the decision-making process in primary motor cortex (M1), premotor cortex (PMd) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFc). We first tested several versions of the task with human subjects before developing a task (“Choose and Go”) that showed ideal behavior from the subjects to test our hypothesis. The task required subjects to choose between two color-coded targets in different spatial locations by deciding the predominant color of a central “decision cue” that contained different amounts of colored squares of the two target colors. The strength of the evidence was manipulated by varying the relative numbers of squares of the two colors. The response times and error rates both increased in parallel as the strength of the sensory evidence in the decision cue (its color bias) became increasingly weaker. Computational modelling showed that the choice behaviour of the subjects could be captured by different variants of the drift-diffusion model for accumulation of sensory evidence to a decision threshold. We then recorded cells from M1, PMd and DLPFc in 2 macaques while they performed the task. Behavioral data showed that response times and error rates increased with the amount of ambiguity of the decision cues. M1 cells discharged in correlation with movement onset and were not influenced by the ambiguity of the decision cues. In contrast, the discharge of PMd cells increased more slowly with increased ambiguity of the decision cues and took increasingly more time to signal the movement direction chosen by the monkeys. The changes in activity reflected the monkeys’ reach choices. These data support a role for PMd in the choice of reach direction. DLPFc data are preliminary but reveal a stronger effect of the color-location conjunction rule in the neuronal discharge than in PMd. Our conclusion is that PMd is involved in the evaluation of evidence for and against different alternatives and about target spatial location independent of the color of the targets. DLPFC neurons play a greater role in processing information about the color and location of the spatial targets and decision cue to resolve the color-location conjunction rule required to decide on the reach target direction.

Dans les situations du quotidien, nous manipulons fréquemment des objets sans les regarder. Pour effectuer des mouvements vers une cible précise avec un objet à la main, il est nécessaire de percevoir les propriétés spatiales de l’objet. Plusieurs études ont démontré que les sujets peuvent discriminer entre des longueurs d'objet différentes sans l’aide des informations visuelles et peuvent adapter leurs mouvements aux nouvelles caractéristiques inertielles produites lors de la manipulation d’un objet. Dans cette étude, nous avons conduit deux expérimentations afin d’évaluer la capacité des sujets à adapter leurs mouvements d’atteinte à la longueur et à la forme perçues des objets manipulés sur la base unique des sensations non visuelles (sensations haptiques). Dans l'expérience 1, dix sujets devaient exécuter des mouvements d’atteintes vers 4 cibles tridimensionnelles (3D) avec un objet à la main. Trois objets de longueur différente ont été utilisés (pointeurs: 12.5, 17.5, 22.5 cm). Aucune connaissance de la position de la main et de l’objet par rapport à la cible n’était disponible pendant et après les mouvements vers les cibles 3D. Ainsi, lorsque comparé avec les erreurs spatiales commises lors des atteintes manuelles sans pointeur, l’erreur spatiale de chacun des mouvements avec pointeur reflète la précision de l’estimation de la longueur des pointeurs. Nos résultats indiquent que les sujets ont augmenté leurs erreurs spatiales lors des mouvements d’atteinte avec un objet en comparaison avec la condition sans pointeur. Cependant, de façon intéressante, ils ont maintenu le même niveau de précision à travers les trois conditions avec des objets de différentes longueurs malgré une différence de 10 cm entre l’objet le plus court et le plus long. Dans l'expérience 2, neuf sujets différents ont effectué des mouvements d’atteinte vers les mêmes cibles utilisant cette fois-ci deux objets en forme de L (objet no.1 : longueur de 17,5 cm et déviation à droite de 12,5 cm – objet no.2 : longueur de 17,5 cm et déviation à droite de 17,5 cm). Comme c’était le cas lors de l'expérience 1, les sujets ont augmenté leurs erreurs spatiales lors des mouvements d’atteinte avec les objets et cette augmentation était similaire entre les deux conditions avec les objets en forme de L. Une observation frappante de l’expérience 2 est que les erreurs de direction n’ont pas augmenté de façon significative entre les conditions avec objet en forme de L et la condition contrôle sans objet. Ceci démontre que les participants ont perçu de façon précise la déviation latérale des objets sans jamais avoir eu de connaissances visuelles de la configuration des objets. Les résultats suggèrent que l’adaptation à la longueur et à la forme des objets des mouvements d’atteinte est principalement basée sur l’intégration des sensations haptiques. À notre connaissance, cette étude est la première à fournir des données quantitatives sur la précision avec laquelle le système haptique peut permettre la perception de la longueur et de la forme d’un objet tenu dans la main afin d’effectuer un mouvement précis en direction d’une cible. / In everyday situations, we frequently manipulate objects without looking at them. To successfully perform goal directed movements with a handheld unseen object, one needs to perceive the spatial properties of the object. Several studies showed that subjects can discriminate between different object lengths without visual information and are able to adapt movements to novel manipulation dynamics. In this study, we evaluated the ability of subjects to adapt their reaching movements to the perceived length and shape of unseen handheld objects (haptic sensations) in two different experimentations. In experiment 1, ten subjects were required to reach to 4 different memorized 3D targets with handheld objects having three different lengths (12.5, 17.5 and 22.5 cm). No feedback of hand or object position relative to the target location was provided during and after the movements. Therefore, when compared with the ‘control’ no object condition, the spatial error of each movement reflects the precision of length perception and movement adaption in a given condition. Our results show that subjects increased their spatial errors while reaching with a handheld object compared to the no object condition. However, interestingly, they maintained the same accuracy level across the three different object length conditions despite a 10 cm length difference between the shorter and longer object. In experiment 2, nine different subjects reached to the same targets using two L-shaped objects (object no.1: 17.5 cm length and 12.5 cm rightward deviation- object no.2: 17.5 cm length and 17.5 cm deviation). As in experiment 1, subjects increased their spatial errors while reaching with handheld objects, but this increase was similar between the two object shape conditions. A striking observation is that subjects did not significantly increase their directional errors in both object shape conditions compared to the no object condition. This demonstrates that they accurately perceived the lateral deviation of objects despite never seeing nor having any explicit knowledge of object configurations. The results indicate that adaptation of reaching movements to the perceived length and shape of handheld objects is largely based on haptic sensations. To our knowledge, this study is the first to provide a quantitative evaluation of the ability of the haptic system to perceive the length and the shape of handheld objects in order to perform an accurate goal directed movement.