Esse trabalho teve o objetivo de analisar a fidelidade da referência externa em tecidos moles no auxílio do posicionamento vertical da maxila. Foram selecionados 40 pacientes portadores de deformidade dentofacial e submetidos à osteotomia total da maxila. Os indivíduos foram divididos em 2 grupos no intuíto de avaliar duas técnicas de referência externa: a utilização da sutura em tecidos moles e o uso do fio de Kirschner. Esta última foi utilizada como a técnica do grupo-controle. Os dados foram colhidos em duas fases. Na primeira delas, foi realizada a mensuração da posição vertical da maxila antes da osteotomia Le Fort I e após a fixação da maxila, utilizando a referência externa. A partir desses números, foi obtida a alteração vertical de cada caso, colhida durante a cirurgia. Na segunda fase da coleta de dados, foram realizadas mensurações verticais da maxila baseadas nas radiografias cefalométricas pré e pós-operatórias. Assim, foi obtido o valor da alteração vertical de cada caso, baseado na documentação radiográfica. Após esta etapa, foi calculada a diferença entre a alteração vertical obtida durante a cirurgia e a alteração vertical colhida a partir das radiografias. Dessa forma, foram obtidos valores que correspondem às imperfeições no posicionamento vertical da maxila de cada paciente, tendo como base a posição do incisivo central superior. Os resultados foram comparados e analisados estatisticamente. A média aritmética da precisão no posicionamento vertical da maxila no grupo-controle foi de 0,52mm e do grupo da referência em tecidos moles foi de 0,65mm. A aplicação do teste t de Student a 5% revelou que não houve diferença estatística significativa entre o grau de precisão das duas técnicas de referência externa (P=0,429). Como conclusão, observou-se que as duas técnicas foram eficazes no auxílio ao posicionamento vertical da maxila e que a referência externa em tecidos moles apresentou um grau de precisão semelhante ao valor obtido com a técnica do fio de Kirschner. / The aim of this study was to analyze the accuracy of external reference placed in soft tissue nasion for vertical maxillary repositioning. Forty patients with dentofacial deformities who were to undergo Le Fort I maxillary osteotomy were separated into two groups to evaluate two different external reference measurement techniques: soft tissue nasion (study group) and Kirschner pins (control group). Data were collected in two phases. Initially the vertical position of the maxilla was assessed during surgery before Le Fort I osteotomy and after maxillary fixation, in relation to the external reference point, evaluating the intra-operative vertical alteration of each case. In the second phase, maxillary vertical measurements were done using the pre and pos-operative cephalometric radiographs to assess their radiographic vertical alteration. Differences among radiographic and intra-operative vertical variations of the maxilla were calculated to acquire values corresponding to discrepancies in maxillary positioning in relation to upper central incisor. Results were statistically compared and analyzed. The average of accuracy of vertical maxillary positioning was 0.525 mm for the control group and 0.650 mm for the study group. Student t test indicated no significant difference between both methods (P=0.429). In conclusion it was noted that both techniques were efficient for vertical maxillary repositioning and soft tissue nasion method showed a similar accuracy of that obtained with Kirschner pins.

This study focuses on the Internet auction in the market of jade from Ming or Ch¡¦ing dynasty. Yahoo/Kimo auction, which is the biggest net auction site in Taiwan, has been selected as the research site in the project. Jade from Ming or Ch¡¦ing dynasty is the major goods in this research because of its distinguishable characteristics and reasonable price in the market. ¡§Case studies¡¨ have been chosen as the methodology of this research. Interviews with six jade sellers, trading records of consumers, and observation from the researcher have become methods of data collection. This study attempts to discover workable strategists for jade sellers in the Internet auction. The main research questions are: (1)Why do sellers choose Yahoo/Kimo auction as the site to sell jade of Ming or Ch¡¦ing dynasty¡H(2)How do sellers manipulate perception of consumers to influence their decision making¡H(3)How does rating and feedback work in marketing jade¡H(4)How to pricing¡HHow to satisfy different marketing segmentation¡H Three conclusions have been summarized as following: In Taiwan, Yahoo/Kimo auction site is a suitable site for jade trading because the site is user friendly, with huge size of pictures showing the characteristics of jade, with fast searching engine, low running cost, and highly security system. If a seller wants to run a stylish store, he/she is suggested to design the website by himself/herself. Generally speaking, most consumers in Internet auction are lack of understanding of jade. Therefore, enriching the description and pictures of goods and lowering the price become key points to influence consumers¡¦ decision making. Another fact found in the study is that the rating and feedback system is useful for convincing consumers at the beginning time; however, it plays less and less important role especially for consumers to make their final decisions. Selling with low-price is unable to reach the exceptional profits, but is considered as a way to clean out stocks. High-price jade is hardly to market through Internet auction because it needs a real site to sell it. ¡§Under the table¡¨ bargaining is commonly seen in Internet auction. In the future, the researcher suggests jade sellers in Internet to specialize jade items, to demonstrate in a theme or a style when marketing.

Esse trabalho teve o objetivo de analisar a fidelidade da referência externa em tecidos moles no auxílio do posicionamento vertical da maxila. Foram selecionados 40 pacientes portadores de deformidade dentofacial e submetidos à osteotomia total da maxila. Os indivíduos foram divididos em 2 grupos no intuíto de avaliar duas técnicas de referência externa: a utilização da sutura em tecidos moles e o uso do fio de Kirschner. Esta última foi utilizada como a técnica do grupo-controle. Os dados foram colhidos em duas fases. Na primeira delas, foi realizada a mensuração da posição vertical da maxila antes da osteotomia Le Fort I e após a fixação da maxila, utilizando a referência externa. A partir desses números, foi obtida a alteração vertical de cada caso, colhida durante a cirurgia. Na segunda fase da coleta de dados, foram realizadas mensurações verticais da maxila baseadas nas radiografias cefalométricas pré e pós-operatórias. Assim, foi obtido o valor da alteração vertical de cada caso, baseado na documentação radiográfica. Após esta etapa, foi calculada a diferença entre a alteração vertical obtida durante a cirurgia e a alteração vertical colhida a partir das radiografias. Dessa forma, foram obtidos valores que correspondem às imperfeições no posicionamento vertical da maxila de cada paciente, tendo como base a posição do incisivo central superior. Os resultados foram comparados e analisados estatisticamente. A média aritmética da precisão no posicionamento vertical da maxila no grupo-controle foi de 0,52mm e do grupo da referência em tecidos moles foi de 0,65mm. A aplicação do teste t de Student a 5% revelou que não houve diferença estatística significativa entre o grau de precisão das duas técnicas de referência externa (P=0,429). Como conclusão, observou-se que as duas técnicas foram eficazes no auxílio ao posicionamento vertical da maxila e que a referência externa em tecidos moles apresentou um grau de precisão semelhante ao valor obtido com a técnica do fio de Kirschner. / The aim of this study was to analyze the accuracy of external reference placed in soft tissue nasion for vertical maxillary repositioning. Forty patients with dentofacial deformities who were to undergo Le Fort I maxillary osteotomy were separated into two groups to evaluate two different external reference measurement techniques: soft tissue nasion (study group) and Kirschner pins (control group). Data were collected in two phases. Initially the vertical position of the maxilla was assessed during surgery before Le Fort I osteotomy and after maxillary fixation, in relation to the external reference point, evaluating the intra-operative vertical alteration of each case. In the second phase, maxillary vertical measurements were done using the pre and pos-operative cephalometric radiographs to assess their radiographic vertical alteration. Differences among radiographic and intra-operative vertical variations of the maxilla were calculated to acquire values corresponding to discrepancies in maxillary positioning in relation to upper central incisor. Results were statistically compared and analyzed. The average of accuracy of vertical maxillary positioning was 0.525 mm for the control group and 0.650 mm for the study group. Student t test indicated no significant difference between both methods (P=0.429). In conclusion it was noted that both techniques were efficient for vertical maxillary repositioning and soft tissue nasion method showed a similar accuracy of that obtained with Kirschner pins.

Le contexte de consommation module la perception des aliments par les consommateurs et leur évaluation, soit directement soit par le biais de croyances et d’attentes induites par le contexte. Parallèlement, les méthodologies d’évaluation des produits alimentaires requièrent souvent des conditions standardisées afin de tenter de neutraliser ces éventuels effets de contexte. Mais ce gain en contrôle peut remettre en question la généralisation des mesures obtenues à des contextes naturels de consommation.Cette thèse examine les conditions dans lesquelles le contexte affecte l’évaluation des produits. Ce travail s’appuie sur la théorie des perspectives, qui considère les effets du contexte sur le jugement à travers la notion de points de référence.Les travaux visaient d’abord à comprendre comment les perceptions des consommateurs et leur évaluation des produits sont influencées par leurs représentations concernant les produits dans différents contextes de consommation. Une étude qualitative (12 groupes de discussion ; N = 86) a révélé que les croyances et les attentes des consommateurs à l'égard d'un contexte particulier sont associées à différents types de produits et de méthodes culinaires, et que les facteurs externes ont un poids différent selon le contexte de consommation.Le deuxième objectif était de comprendre en quoi l’évaluation par les consommateurs d’un produit alimentaire dans des contextes naturels de consommation pouvait différer selon la nature de la tâche d’évaluation. Les évaluations hédoniques de produits présentant différents degrés de préparation culinaire (pain = contrôle ; pizza = fait maison, industriel et assemblé) ont été comparées (N = 457) entre deux tâches différentes lors d’une expérience conduite en cafétéria. Les résultats ont montré que les produits à plusieurs composants soumis à différents degrés de préparation culinaire (pizza fait maison) étaient en effet plus sensibles au type de tâche d'évaluation que des produits plus standardisés (pain).Le dernier objectif de la thèse était d’explorer les facteurs contribuant à la formation de points de référence pour expliquer les influences contextuelles sur l’évaluation des consommateurs. Deux expériences ont comparé les évaluations hédoniques dans (i) deux contextes (CLT et restaurant ; N = 283) en condition informée et non informée sur les degrés de préparation culinaire d’un produit (cake salé) ; et (ii) dans un seul contexte (restaurant ; N = 114) en condition informée sur les degrés de préparation culinaire et l’origine des ingrédients (quiche) ; où les croyances et les attentes des consommateurs à l’égard des aliments servis changent. Les résultats ont montré que les effets de facteurs externes pouvaient être réduits par un contrôle minutieux des convictions et des attentes des consommateurs dans un contexte donné.Cette thèse contribue à la compréhension des effets des contextes sur l’évaluation hédonique des consommateurs et propose un cadre théorique pour étudier ces effets à travers des points de référence. Les résultats pourraient être utiles pour élaborer des lignes directrices pour les industriels et chercheurs utilisant des évaluations hédoniques pour inclure le contexte de manière adéquate à chaque étape du développement du produit. / Environmental factors modulate consumers’ perception and in turn, consumer evaluation of food in a given context, either directly or through context-induced beliefs and expectations. However, food products are usually evaluated in standardized conditions in an attempt to neutralize possible context effects on consumer evaluation. This questions the generalization of such measures to more natural consumption contexts.The aim of this research was to examine the conditions under which context affects consumer evaluation of food products. This work is grounded in Prospect Theory, which considers the effects of context on judgement through the notion of reference points.The first objective was to understand how consumers’ experiences and subsequent product evaluations are influenced by consumers’ representations about food in different consumption contexts. A qualitative study (12 focus groups; N =86) revealed that consumers’ beliefs and expectations towards a particular context are intimately associated to different types of products and culinary methods, and that external factors have a different weight depending on the consumption context.The second objective was to understand how consumers’ hedonic responses in natural consumption contexts may differ depending on the type of evaluation task. The hedonic responses of products with different degrees of culinary preparation (bread = control; pizza = homemade, industrial and mixed) were compared (N = 457) between two different tasks in a student cafeteria. The results showed that multicomponent products subjected to a different degrees of culinary preparation (homemade pizza) were indeed more sensitive to the type of evaluation task compared to more standardized products (bread).The last objective of the thesis was to test hypotheses based on Prospect Theory to explain contextual influences on consumers' food evaluation. Two experiments compared hedonic evaluations in (i) two contexts (CLT and restaurant; N= 283), in blind and informed conditions about the degree of culinary preparation of a product (ham-olive cake); and (ii) in one context (restaurant; N = 114) in informed conditions about the degree of culinary preparation and origin of the ingredients (quiche); where consumers’ beliefs and expectations towards the food served were modified. Results showed that the effects of external factors could be reduced through careful control of consumers’ beliefs and expectations in a given context.This thesis contributes to the understanding of context effects on consumer hedonic evaluation and it proposes a theoretical framework to investigate those effects by means of reference points. The results could be valuable to develop guidelines for industrials and researchers using hedonic evaluations to include context adequately at each stage of product development.

The purpose of the dissertation is to study, describe and analyses which comparative measurement activities preschool children construct and use, and how they solve problems and communicate when they use the comparative measurement activities whilst playing with Lego (“the Lego play”). The measurement activities chosen are length/height, quantity and time. The empirical material is based on data from two preschool classes with children aged 2 – 5 year, It was collected through participant observation (video captures) of the children’s Lego play. The theoretical starting points in this study are grounded in childhood sociology and the sociocultural perspective. The study assumes the childhood sociology perspective by viewing the children as competent and active in creating meaning as well as controlling and influencing their own and others’ social environment. The sociocultural perspective gives prominence to development and learning, and its related tools and concepts are used to analyses the results of the study. That is, the Lego play is studied in a social context from the child’s perspective, and the sociocultural perspective describes and analyses the child’s use of mathematics and the acquisition of knowledge in the Lego play in a sociocultural context. The results show that children measuring length/height and quantity explored a store of measurement tools in order to make comparisons, and adapted these to the context in question. These were own body, other body, artefacts, numbers and counting. The measurements were used individually and with others, and the solving of the own or shared problems constituted a large share of the time spent constructing models during Lego play. By contrast, the time concept was used mainly as a tool when the children played with their finished Lego models. Thus, a time perspective was added to the child’s finished model, which inspired thoughts and reflections about time used in the Lego play. The children used the time concepts of the present, the past and the future, and also considered the concept of velocity in the context of the timescale. The children’s communication had a large impact on the Lego play, and they expressed their ideas verbally, physically and through action. The children’s use of mathematics was prominent and meaningful during the Lego play.

Le but de ce travail est d'introduire un cadre d'approximation, la Reference Points Method, afin de réduire la complexité de calcul des opérations algébriques lorsqu'elles concernent des approximations à variables séparées dans le cadre de la Proper Generalized Decomposition.La PGD a été introduite dans [1] dans le cadre de la méthode LaTIn pour résoudre efficacement des équations différentielles non linéaires et dépendants du temps en mécanique des structures. La technique consiste à chercher la solution d'un problème dans une base d'ordre réduit (ROB) qui est automatiquement et à la volée générée par la méthode LaTIn. La méthode LaTIn est une stratégie itérative qui génère les approximations de la solution sur l'ensemble du domaine espace-temps-paramètres par enrichissements successifs. Lors d'une itération particulière, la ROB, qui a déjà été formée, est d'abord utilisée pour calculer un nouveau modèle réduit (ROM) et, donc, pour trouver une nouvelle approximation de la solution. Si la qualité de cette approximation ne suffit pas, la ROB est enrichie avec la génération d'un nouveau produit de fonctions PGD en utilisant un algorithme de type 'greedy'.Les techniques de réduction de modèle sont particulièrement efficaces lorsque le ROM a besoin d'être construit qu'une seule fois. Ce n'est pas le cas pour les techniques de réduction de modèle quand elles concernent des problèmes non linéaires. En effet, dans un tel cas, les opérateurs qui sont impliqués dans la construction du ROM varient au cours du processus itératif et des calculs préliminaires ne peuvent pas être effectués à l'avance pour accélérer le processus 'online'.Par conséquent, la construction du ROM est un élément coûteux de la stratégie de calcul en terme de temps de calcul. Il en découle la nécessité d'évaluer, à chaque itération, la fonction non linéaire de grande dimension (et éventuellement sa jacobienne) et ensuite sa projection pour obtenir les opérateurs réduits. Cela représente un point de blocage des stratégies de réduction de modèle dans le cadre non linéaire. Le présent travail a comme but une réduction ultérieure du coût de calcul, grâce à l'introduction d'un nouveau cadre de rapprochement dédiée à la stratégie de calcul LaTIn-PGD. Il est basé sur la notion de temps, de points et de paramètres de référence et permet de définir une version compressée des données. Comparé à d'autres techniques similaires [3,4] cela ne se veut pas une technique d'interpolation, mais un cadre algébrique qui permet de donner une première approximation, peu coûteuse, de toutes les quantités sous une forme à variable séparés par des formules explicites. L'espace de données compressées présente des propriétés intéressantes qui traitent les opérations algébriques élémentaires. Le RPM est introduit dans le solveur LaTIn-PGD non linéaire pour calculer certaines opérations répétitives. Ces opérations sont liées à la résolution du problème du temps / paramètre qui implique la mise à jour de l'opérateur tangent et la projection de ce dernier sur la base réduite. La RPM permet de simplifier et de réduire le nombre d'opérations nécessaires.[1] Ladevèze P., Sur une famille d’algorithmes en mécanique des structures, Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences. Paris. Ser. II 300, pp.41-44, 1985.[2] Chinesta, F., Ladevèze, P., and Cueto, E. A short review on model order reduction based on proper generalized decomposition. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 18, pp.395-404, 2011.[3] Barrault M., Maday Y., Nguyen N., Patera A., An ’empirical interpolation’ method: application to efficient reduced-basis discretization of partial differential equations, Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences. Paris. Ser. I, 339, pp. 667-672, 2004.[4] Chaturentabut S., Sorensen D., Nonlinear model reduction via discrete empirical interpolation, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics 32(5), pp.2737-2764, 2010. / The aim of this work is to introduce an approximation framework, called Reference Points Method (RPM), in order to decrease the computational complexity of algebraic operations when dealing with separated variable approximations in the Proper Generalized Decomposition (PGD) framework.The PGD has been introduced in [1] in the context of the LATIN method to solve efficiently time dependent and/or parametrized nonlinear partial differential equations in structural mechanics (see, e.g., the review [2] for recent applications). Roughly, the PGD technique consists in seeking the solution of a problem in a relevant Reduced-Order Basis (ROB) which is generated automatically and on-the-fly by the LATIN method. This latter is an iterative strategy which generates the approximations of the solution over the entire time- space-parameter domain by successive enrichments. At a particular iteration, the ROB, which has been already formed, is at first used to compute a projected Reduced-Order Model (ROM) and find a new approximation of the solution. If the quality of this approximation is not sufficient, the ROB is enriched by determining a new functional product using a greedy algorithm.However, model reduction techniques are particularly efficient when the ROM needs one construction only. This is not the case for the model reduction techniques when they are addressed to nonlinear problems. Indeed, in such a case, the operators which are involved in the construction of the ROM change all along the iterative process and no preliminary computations can be performed in advance to speed up the online process. Hence, the construction of the ROM is an expensive part of the calculation strategy in terms of CPU. It ensues from the need to evaluate the high-dimensional nonlinear function (and eventually its Jacobian) and then to project it to get the low-dimensional operators at each computational step of a solution algorithm. This amounts to being the bottleneck of nonlinear model reduction strategies.The present work is then focused on a further reduction of the computational cost, thanks to the introduction of a new approximation framework dedicated to PGD-based nonlinear solver. It is based on the concept of reference times, points and parameters and allows to define a compressed version of the data. Compared to other similar techniques [3,4] this is not an interpolation technique but an algebraic framework allowing to give an inexpensive first approximation of all quantities in a separated variable form by explicit formulas. The space of compressed data shows interesting properties dealing the elementary algebraic operations. The RPM is introduced in the PGD-based nonlinear solver to compute some repetitive operations. These operations are related to the resolution of the time/parameter problem that involves the update of the tangent operator (for nonlinear problems) and the projection of this latter on the Reduced Order Basis. For that the RPM allows to simplify and reduce the number of operations needed.[1] Ladevèze P., Sur une famille d’algorithmes en mécanique des structures, Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences. Paris. Ser. II 300, pp.41-44, 1985.[2] Chinesta, F., Ladevèze, P., and Cueto, E. A short review on model order reduction based on proper generalized decomposition. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, 18, pp.395-404, 2011.[3] Barrault M., Maday Y., Nguyen N., Patera A., An ’empirical interpolation’ method: application to efficient reduced-basis discretization of partial differential equations, Comptes Rendus Académie des Sciences. Paris. Ser. I, 339, pp. 667-672, 2004.[4] Chaturentabut S., Sorensen D., Nonlinear model reduction via discrete empirical interpolation, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics 32(5), pp.2737-2764, 2010.

Eine große Herausforderung für Verkehrsmodelle stellt die korrekte Abbildung der Entscheidungsmuster bei der Zielwahl dar. Diese bestimmt die räumlichen Strukturen der Nachfrage und steht in engem Zusammenhang mit zentralen Ergebnissen der Nachfragemodellierung. Rund ein Drittel der Alltagswege in Deutschland sind Einkaufs- und Erledigungwege. Zahlreiche Arbeiten zeigen die Bedeutung von habitualisierten Verhaltensmustern bei der Wahl eines Einkaufsortes. Die Motive der Geschäftswahl gelten als sehr vielfältig. Besondere Bedeutung wird zudem den Primäraktivitätenorten zugeschrieben. Gleichwohl erfolgt die Abbildung der Zielwahl in der Nachfragemodellierung zumeist sehr vereinfachend. Gewöhnlich wird von einem Versorgungseinkauf mit der Geschäftsgröße und der Anreisezeit ausgegangen. Diese Arbeit zeigt anhand empirischer Auswertungen Möglichkeiten einer verhaltensorientierten Abbildung der Einkaufszielwahl in mikroskopischen Personenverkehrsmodellen auf. Im Fokus stehen die Variabilität der Geschäftswahl, die ausschlaggebenden Motive sowie die räumlichen Bezugspunkte der Suche. Am Beispiel des Erwerbs von Nahrungs- und Genussmitteln, von Textilien sowie von Unterhaltungselektronik werden Unterschiede zwischen Einkaufswaren verschiedener Fristigkeit, aber auch zwischen verschiedenen Personengruppen herausgearbeitet. Simulationsrechnungen mit dem Nachfragemodell TAPAS zeigen, dass eine Differenzierung der Einkaufsart sowie die Nutzung eines motivgestützen Erreichbarkeitsmaßes die Modellierungsergebnisse stark verbessern. Die Arbeit stellt erweiterte Indikatoren für eine Berücksichtigung der räumlichen Bezugspunkte bei der Beurteilung der Modellierungsergebnisse bereit. Auch stehen mit den Analysen der Aktivitätenräume, der Umwegfaktoren, der Lage der Einkaufsorte sowie der kumulierten Reiseweiten Informationen zur Verfügung, die generell für die Definition adäquater Suchräume und Bezugspunkte für die Modellierung städtischer Untersuchungsgebiete genutzt werden können. / A major challenge in travel demand modelling is the correct representation of decision patterns underlying the choice of destinations. This choice determines the spatial structures of demand and is closely related to central modelling results. Around one third of everyday trips in Germany are for shopping and errands. Numerous studies show the importance of habitualised behavioral patterns when choosing a shopping location. The motives for choosing a shop are considered to be very diverse. Particular importance is attributed to primary activity locations. Nevertheless, the representation of the target choice in demand modelling is usually very simplified. Usually, a supply purchase is implicitly assumed, with the size of the shop and travel time from the previous location being the most important choice criteria. Using empirical analyses, this dissertation shows possibilities for a behavior-oriented depiction of shopping location choice in microscopic passenger transport models. These are discussed in terms of their usability for modeling. The analyses focus on the variability of destinations, the decisive motives and the spatial reference points of the location search. Using the example of the purchase of food and beverages, textiles and consumer electronics, differences between shopping goods of different periodicity and also different groups of people are presented. Simulation calculations with the demand model TAPAS show that a differentiation of the type of purchase and the use of a motive-based accessibility measure greatly improves the modelling results. The dissertation provides extended indicators for a consideration of spatial reference points in the evaluation of the modelling results. Furthermore, the analyses of activity areas, diversion factors, the location of shopping locations and cumulative travel distances provide information that can be generally used to define adequate search areas and reference points for the modelling of urban study areas.Einkaufsverhalten