Economic benefit assessment has become an integral requirement of transmission system planning in the context of electricity market deregulation around the world. In a deregulated electricity market, not only does transmission planning have to address technical requirements but also has to consider commercial issues linked to an electricity market. One of the prime goals of transmission planning is to ensure a fair distribution of economic benefits among the market participants (all those who produce, transmit and consume). These economic benefits attributable to a transmission interconnection generally appear as benefits to an electricity market and are referred to as market benefits. Even from a regulatory perspective, assessment of market benefits of a transmission interconnection is an essential requirement to ascertain its economic value. The market benefit assessment of a transmission interconnector presented in this thesis is specific to the Australian National Electricity Market (NEM) consistent with the regulatory framework in the NEM. This thesis develops a market benefit assessment framework in accordance with Regulatory Investment Test for Transmission (RIT-T) to assess the economic significance of Basslink, one of six inter-regional transmission interconnectors in the Australian NEM. A long-term market benefit modelling framework comprising least cost modelling (LCM) and time sequential modelling (TSM) is developed and applied to undertake modelling of long term market benefits. PLEXOS, a leading power market modelling software is used for this purpose. Economic analysis concludes that the presence of Basslink is of significant economic value in terms of market benefits for the ranges of market development scenarios (MDS) studied.

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Mot bakgrund av de senaste decenniernas konjunktursvängningar i världsekonomin konstaterades det i Sverige att det fanns ett behov av att kunna möta dessa svängningar. Detta resulterade i den lagändring av Kommunallagen och Lagen om kommunal redovisning som erbjöd kommuner möjligheten till att införa en resultatutjämningsreserv i redovisningen. Denna resultatutjämningsreserv utgör ett periodiseringsverktyg där medel kan reserveras i goda tider för att sedan utnyttjas i sämre. Lagändringen är frivillig att anamma och har skapat en viss flexibilitet i kommunernas redovisning. Då kommuner har olika förutsättningar kan detta leda till att motiven till ställningstagandet kring ett införande av en resultatutjämningsreserv skiljer sig mellan kommuner. Uppsatsens syfte är att undersöka motiven till varför de valda kommunerna väljer att införa eller inte väljer att införa en resultatutjämningsreserv i redovisningen. Genom detta ämnar uppsatsen klargöra om motiven skiljer sig beroende på ekonomiska och demografiska omständigheter. En dokumentstudie genomfördes med syftet att kartlägga alla Sveriges 290 kommuners beslut rörande en resultatutjämningsreserv. Därefter valdes 40 kommuner ut till en faktorstudie för att kartlägga ekonomiska och demografiska omständigheter hos kommunerna. I ett sista skede av empiriinsamlingen intervjuades 20 av dessa 40 kommuner för att erhålla förståelse för motiven till att införa eller att inte införa en resultatutjämningsreserv. Studien visar på att kommuner som infört en resultatutjämningsreserv har samma motiv till detta som lagstiftarens intention, att möta konjunktur- svängningar. De kommuner som inte infört en resultatutjämningsreserv uppger mer spridda motiv. Motivet till att inte införa en resultatutjämningsreserv uppges vara att den leder till en inlåsning av egna medel eller att kommunen anser det onödig då kommunen har egna sätt att hantera konjunktursvängningars inverkan på ekonomin. Kommuner med mindre bra ekonomi uppger att motivet till att inte införa en resultatutjämningsreserv är att man i första hand behöver konsolidera ekonomin innan en sådan reserv kan bli aktuellt. Utifrån denna studie går det inte att se att större kommuner generellt har infört en resultatutjämningsreserv, vilket talar emot studien som Falkman et al genomfört om att större kommuner i större utsträckning anammar nya redovisningsregler. Denna avvikelse från teorin kan förklaras av frivilligheten i lagstiftningen samt den ickeexisterande praxis och rekommendationer gällande en resultat- utjämningsreserv. / Due to the last decades’ fluctuations in the world economy, it was pointed out that municipalities in Sweden needed a way to handle these fluctuations. This resulted in a change in the law of municipalities which made it possible for municipalities to implement a regulatory reserve in the accounting. This regulatory reserve is an accrual tool where funds can be reserved in good times in order to be used in worse. This legislative change has brought flexibility in to the accounting of the municipalities. Because of the different conditions in the municipalities, the motives to implement this voluntary regulatory reserve can differ among them. The study aims to examine the reasons why the chosen municipalities choose to implement or not to implement a regulatory reserve in their accounting. Through this, the study intends to clarify if the motives differ among the municipalities due to economic and demographic circumstances. A document analysis was carried out with the purpose to visualize all the municipalities of Sweden, regarding their decision to implement or not implement a regulatory reserve. After that, 40 municipalities were selected to be a part of a factor analysis in order to understand the economic and demographic circumstances in the municipalities. In a final stage of the empirical data collection, 20 of these 40 municipalities were interviewed to obtain information about the motives to implement or not to implement a regulatory reserve. The study shows that municipalities that have implemented a regulatory reserve have the same motives as the intention of the law, to meet economic fluctuations. The municipalities that haven’t implemented a regulatory reserve declare more varying motives. The motives to not implement a regulatory reserve are for instance that it leads to a locked-in effect of equity or that the municipalities can handle the fluctuations in the economy by themselves. Municipalities with less good economy declare that the motive to not implement a regulatory reserve is that they primarily focus is to consolidate their economy before it is possible to create a reserve. According to this study, it is not possible to say that bigger municipalities have implemented a regulatory reserve, which not is in accordance with the study done by Falkman et al that states that bigger municipalities tend to embrace new accounting rules. This deviation from this theory can be explained by the voluntary attribute of the law and also the non- existing practice and recommendation about a regulatory reserve.

Recent research of a cohort of HIV exposed sero-negative (HESN) female commercial sex workers in Nairobi has revealed an Immune Quiescent phenotype; characterized by reduced T cell activation and higher regulatory T cells (Tregs) in peripheral blood. HESN women also express lower levels of interferon regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1), a critical regulator known to negatively impact Treg development in mice. In this study, we analyzed the functional capacity of Tregs by an in vitro depletion assay and measured functionality by flow cytometry. Data showed Tregs suppressed CD4+ and CD8+ proliferation responses. We characterized the link between Tregs and IRF-1 in HESN and observed an inverse correlation between IRF-1 expression and Treg proportions. We also established reduced expression of IRF-1 in Tregs of healthy donors by flow cytometry. In a separate study, flow cytometric analysis of high-risk sex-workers revealed that CTLA-4 expression in memory CD4+cells, not Treg frequency, was associated with HIV seroconversion. / February 2017

The study of regulatory T cells (Tregs) is a relatively new field. Within the past few decades, research on Tregs has greatly deepened scientists’ understanding of the link between the immune system and cancer. The study of melanoma is one such cancer that has benefited greatly from this area of study. Tregs are a subset of CD4+ T cells (TCs) that are either generated in the thymus or in the periphery. The main role of Tregs in normal immune physiology is to suppress immune cells. This is an essential component in the prevention of autoimmunity. In melanoma, however, Tregs prevent components of the immune system from mounting a robust response to cancerous lesions and tumors. Tregs have been observed to infiltrate melanoma tumors due to chemokines and other soluble signaling molecules such as CCL1 and CCL22. Once Tregs accumulate inside melanoma tumors, they generate an immunosuppressive microenvironment in a contact-dependent and contact-independent manner. IL-10 secretion and use of the CTLA-4 pathway were observed to be the most well characterized modes of suppression but other mechanisms are still being discovered. Clinicians can take advantage of new therapeutics to modulate the activity of Tregs. Exogenous administration of antibodies that bind to CTLA-4, PD-1, CCR4 and other receptors and molecules can prevent Treg development and action. Preventing Tregs from carrying out their suppressive function may allow other elements of the immune system, such as CD8+ TCs, to target and destroy melanoma cells. Clinicians can also measure the relative abundance of Tregs or use the ratio of effector TCs (Teff) and Tregs to predict patient outcomes and survival. More research is needed to determine that precise mechanisms of Treg infiltration and accumulation within the tumor and the mode of Treg suppression. This paper finds that there is no standard Treg identification marker. This can lead to aberrant results and failures such as the inability to distinguish Tregs from melanoma cells that also express Treg-like markers or a failure to identify other Treg subtypes. Lack of consensus also extends to the prognostic value of Tregs due, in part, to small sample sizes and the inability to accurately identify Tregs in vivo. Future research must focus on Treg identification, action, and the elucidation of therapeutic mechanisms. These future studies will ensure that clinicians have the correct information to choose the proper melanoma treatment that will target the specific Treg populations found within patients’ melanoma tumors.

Private healthcare financing in South Africa has undergone several regulatory reforms, the most recent of which saw the enactment of the Medical Schemes Act No. 131 of 1998. The stated reforms, most especially open enrolment and community rating, were touted by the government as necessary to address the undesirable effects of adverse selection. However, it was never questioned whether in fact adverse selection is a feature of the South African medical schemes landscape. Adverse selection is found to be absent. Thus, government’s supposition that adverse selection, as a consequence of the deregulation that took place during the late 1980s and early 1990s, is responsible for the deterioration in medical scheme coverage for the elderly, unhealthy or poor is fallacious. Since the ostensible reason for the current legislation does not stand up to scrutiny, regulatory capture is offered as the plausible alternative explanation for the promulgation of the current legislation governing medical schemes business.

The advance in information technology has encouraged many countries to develop diverse methods of delivering information and communicating. The enhancement of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has made it possible to deliver information and communication more rapidly and conveniently. Many emerging economies have taken advantage of ICT, including it in its development agenda. The development of ICT has had an impact on the provision of retail payment systems and its instruments. One of the main instruments, electronic money, promises to benefit the users with all the advantages of traditional notes and coins, and much more. Many countries have established or are considering the establishment of a regulatory framework of electronic money with its mass use in view. This volume examines the regulatory framework of electronic money, which some emerging economies have already established. It analyses the challenges faced in implementing laws and regulations for an evolving payment instrument where the regulatory framework may quickly become obsolete. The continuing development of electronic money with additional features and functions may invoke legislation leading to cross-regulatory functions among the authorities. The thesis is that the success of implementing the regulatory framework for electronic money will depend on the sound and effective coordination among relevant authorities. The role of the central bank and its relation to relevant authorities will be closely examined, because the central bank is often responsible for the development of payment systems, both wholesale and retail, especially in emerging economies, and plays a key role in its regulation. The use of a Memorandum of Understanding is proposed to ensure effective coordination and cooperation among relevant authorities. Malaysia will be used as the case study as the government has been enthusiastic in adopting electronic money, being involved in its development, implementation and regulation, which may not always be appropriate. Analysis in this thesis will be based on information as of 1 September 2004. The first three chapters of this volume will discuss the enhancement of ICT in emerging economies and the efforts taken to develop retail payment systems in consonant with ICT. Evaluation will be made on the relationship between ICT and the need to modernise the retail payment, which includes developing its regulatory framework. Analysis will then be made specifically on electronic money, focusing on stored-valued products. The overall development on stored-valued cards and why the acceptance of this product was initially slow will be examined, and then the underlying regulatory structure that may affect this is assessed. The last two chapters will focus on Malaysia. Analysis will be made on the approach taken in developing electronic money and its regulatory framework. The roles and functions of the relevant authorities involved will be critically examined, leading to a proposal to execute a Memorandum of Understanding among the authorities as a mechanism of ensuring the effective coordination and cooperation between the parties.

The protection of consumers of financial services has attracted a lot of debates following the global financial crisis of 2007 to 2009. As a result, there have been series of reforms in a number of jurisdictions across the globe. Despite this development some countries still lag behind and Nigeria is no exception. This study examines the problems of consumer protection in Nigeria, with specific reference to the bank consumers. The aim is to consider whether the Nigeria consumer protection regime provides "sufficient protection to bank consumers and whether it should be reformed". The study also focuses on the role of the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) in consumer protection, its dispute resolution mechanism and the practical challenges. The test of sufficiency will be analysed and discussed, using 'consistency', 'efficiency' and 'accessibility' in order to illustrate the existing weaknesses in resolving consumer dispute. The approach in this study is doctrinal analysis. In all, the findings suggest that there is need, to reform the consumer protection regime in the banking sector and enforce laws which will address issues highlighted in the study to enable the users of banking services in Nigeria to obtain an appropriate level of protection through regulatory processes. This study, therefore, also provides a comparative analysis between United Kingdom and Nigeria, using current consumer protection framework in the United Kingdom in making proposals for the needed reforms in Nigeria. The study thus concludes with the recommendation that the current Nigerian consumer protection regime does not offer adequate protection; hence protecting consumers require a holistic approach which includes effective consumer protection framework, enforcement, coordination and cooperation from different stakeholders.