This thesis explores the relationship between photography and painting from the mid-nineteenth-century to the early twentieth-century. Specifically, I focus on the artistic outputs of four painters, Degas, Vuillard, Bonnard and Sickert, and the different manners in which they incorporated photography within their creative practices. In particular, I concentrate on photography’s representation of and relationship with time, discussing this in relation to three concepts, that of the narrative moment, memory and motion; concepts that painters often experimented with and explored during the timeframe mentioned. Throughout the thesis I examine how the paintings of my selected artists compare and contrast with photographic imagery. By doing so I demonstrate how these artists incorporated and commented on photographic notions of time within their paintings. Three of the artists, Degas, Vuillard and Bonnard, also experimented with photography and I look at how their photographic experiments related to and/or impacted their painting practices. This thesis argues that the selected painters’ experimentation with photography did not hinder their creative vision, but rather enhanced it. Further, I comment on how these artists recognised the differences between photographic representations of life and their own visual and emotional experiences, thereby challenging photography’s connection with objective truth; an important critique considering that photography was still in its infancy.

A presente pesquisa é dedicada à análise de representações do tempo sob a forma de imagens que integram obras contemporâneas, realizadas em fotografia e vídeo. Neste contexto, são investigadas as relações históricas, conceituais e formais presentes nas imagens e a sua participação nos processos artísticos examinados. Em particular, são analisadas a participação da temporalidade e da duração nas obras das artistas brasileiras, Marina Camargo e Patricia Gouvêa, e os desdobramentos que seus trabalhos podem suscitar às experiências estéticas sobre tempo. / This research is dedicated to the analysis of representations of time under the form of images that integrate contemporary works of art performed in photography and video. In this context, the historical, conceptual and formal relations shown in images and their role in artistic processes are investigated. In particular, the presence of temporality and its duration in the works of art of the Brazilian artists Marina Camargo and Patricia Gouvêa are analyzed, as well as the ramifications that those works can raise to aesthetic experiences of time.

A presente pesquisa é dedicada à análise de representações do tempo sob a forma de imagens que integram obras contemporâneas, realizadas em fotografia e vídeo. Neste contexto, são investigadas as relações históricas, conceituais e formais presentes nas imagens e a sua participação nos processos artísticos examinados. Em particular, são analisadas a participação da temporalidade e da duração nas obras das artistas brasileiras, Marina Camargo e Patricia Gouvêa, e os desdobramentos que seus trabalhos podem suscitar às experiências estéticas sobre tempo. / This research is dedicated to the analysis of representations of time under the form of images that integrate contemporary works of art performed in photography and video. In this context, the historical, conceptual and formal relations shown in images and their role in artistic processes are investigated. In particular, the presence of temporality and its duration in the works of art of the Brazilian artists Marina Camargo and Patricia Gouvêa are analyzed, as well as the ramifications that those works can raise to aesthetic experiences of time.

A presente pesquisa é dedicada à análise de representações do tempo sob a forma de imagens que integram obras contemporâneas, realizadas em fotografia e vídeo. Neste contexto, são investigadas as relações históricas, conceituais e formais presentes nas imagens e a sua participação nos processos artísticos examinados. Em particular, são analisadas a participação da temporalidade e da duração nas obras das artistas brasileiras, Marina Camargo e Patricia Gouvêa, e os desdobramentos que seus trabalhos podem suscitar às experiências estéticas sobre tempo. / This research is dedicated to the analysis of representations of time under the form of images that integrate contemporary works of art performed in photography and video. In this context, the historical, conceptual and formal relations shown in images and their role in artistic processes are investigated. In particular, the presence of temporality and its duration in the works of art of the Brazilian artists Marina Camargo and Patricia Gouvêa are analyzed, as well as the ramifications that those works can raise to aesthetic experiences of time.

Anthologies composed for adolescent readers are rare in both Afrikaans and Dutch. These anthologies are published at quite lengthy intervals, because they are post-publications in which already published volumes are absorbed. These anthologies are, however, to an increasing extent the medium by which readers become aware of poetry and are also introduced to different poets. For that reason it can be concluded that anthologies inform poetic taste. The empathy and love towards poetry experienced by young children in both languages are gradually replaced by an apathetic attitude towards poems and even an antipathetic attitude in general during adolescence. The first reaction to poetry is usually emotional and this indicates the way for further intellectual development. When selecting poems for the adolescent reader, the different developmental aspects affecting the adolescent and his identity development must be taken into consideration. The needs of the adolescent reader must be kept in mind. Needs in reading develop as a result of general needs that should be satisfied in the first place. Should this be the case, the need for reading would develop. In this study different theoretical points of view, namely reader-response criticism, developmental psychology, general needs and reading-related needs are used to determine the representation of identity in poems. Specific theories of poetry are used as instruments in text studies and analyses with regard to representation of identity in anthologies for adolescents. Poems in Versreise (Vermaak et al.) and Met gekleurde billen zou her gelukkiger leven zijn (Van Coillie) are analysed focusing on the representation of time and space, speaker and perspective, atmosphere and metaphorical language. For the purposes of this study analyses were conducted to evaluate and interpret the representation of identity in the texts of both anthologies. The differences and similarities between the Afrikaans and Dutch poetry texts for the adolescent had to be identified. The differences were used to determine which type of text would support the Afrikaans identity, the Dutch identity or the Flemish identity. The similarities, on the other hand, were used to determine the type of text that would not appeal to the Afrikaans, Dutch or Flemish adolescents only, but to adolescents in general. In this study method-pluralism is scientifically unavoidable. Different methods were systematically combined to support the specific methods of approach. The research was done in accordance with four methods: a synopsis of existing and appropriate theory of literature and forming of theory with regard to relevant concepts and terms; the analyses of texts in two anthologies; a summary of critical opinions stated in different reviews as well as surveys and interviews based on consultations via e-mail with the different role players, i.e. the anthology composers, illustrators and publishers. / Thesis (MA (Afrikaans en Nederlands))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Anthologies composed for adolescent readers are rare in both Afrikaans and Dutch. These anthologies are published at quite lengthy intervals, because they are post-publications in which already published volumes are absorbed. These anthologies are, however, to an increasing extent the medium by which readers become aware of poetry and are also introduced to different poets. For that reason it can be concluded that anthologies inform poetic taste. The empathy and love towards poetry experienced by young children in both languages are gradually replaced by an apathetic attitude towards poems and even an antipathetic attitude in general during adolescence. The first reaction to poetry is usually emotional and this indicates the way for further intellectual development. When selecting poems for the adolescent reader, the different developmental aspects affecting the adolescent and his identity development must be taken into consideration. The needs of the adolescent reader must be kept in mind. Needs in reading develop as a result of general needs that should be satisfied in the first place. Should this be the case, the need for reading would develop. In this study different theoretical points of view, namely reader-response criticism, developmental psychology, general needs and reading-related needs are used to determine the representation of identity in poems. Specific theories of poetry are used as instruments in text studies and analyses with regard to representation of identity in anthologies for adolescents. Poems in Versreise (Vermaak et al.) and Met gekleurde billen zou her gelukkiger leven zijn (Van Coillie) are analysed focusing on the representation of time and space, speaker and perspective, atmosphere and metaphorical language. For the purposes of this study analyses were conducted to evaluate and interpret the representation of identity in the texts of both anthologies. The differences and similarities between the Afrikaans and Dutch poetry texts for the adolescent had to be identified. The differences were used to determine which type of text would support the Afrikaans identity, the Dutch identity or the Flemish identity. The similarities, on the other hand, were used to determine the type of text that would not appeal to the Afrikaans, Dutch or Flemish adolescents only, but to adolescents in general. In this study method-pluralism is scientifically unavoidable. Different methods were systematically combined to support the specific methods of approach. The research was done in accordance with four methods: a synopsis of existing and appropriate theory of literature and forming of theory with regard to relevant concepts and terms; the analyses of texts in two anthologies; a summary of critical opinions stated in different reviews as well as surveys and interviews based on consultations via e-mail with the different role players, i.e. the anthology composers, illustrators and publishers. / Thesis (MA (Afrikaans en Nederlands))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Thèse réalisée en cotutelle avec l'Université Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), sous la direction de M. Michel Delon. / Cette thèse a pour objectif d’analyser les représentations du temps historique dans le Tableau de Paris (1781-1788) et le Nouveau Paris (1798) de Louis Sébastien Mercier et de faire voir comment elles se transforment sous l’impact de la Révolution française, elle qui oblige les contemporains à réévaluer leur rapport au temps. Ces œuvres s’inscrivent dans la tradition de la littérature panoramique : l’auteur y décrit l’état de la capitale et donne à voir les mœurs de ses habitants. Si Mercier s’attache à peindre la physionomie actuelle de Paris, il en vient, au fil de ses promenades, à décrypter le passé qui est enfoui, comme un palimpseste, sous la surface présente. L’espace urbain, ainsi peuplé des spectres du passé, fait cohabiter de multiples strates temporelles et donne l’image d’un temps dense au sein duquel différentes époques sont coprésentes. La persistance du passé pose toutefois problème : c’est pourquoi l’héritage antique et national se voit réévalué – voire éradiqué – afin de répondre aux exigences de l’idéologie progressiste. Avec la Révolution, de nouveaux outils conceptuels sont élaborés pour gérer le rapport avec le passé : si les révolutionnaires rejettent, après la Terreur, les entreprises d’épuration par la destruction, ils développent un nouveau mode de mise à distance du passé, la patrimonialisation. Celle-ci, par la conservation même, relègue paradoxalement le passé au rang d’histoire morte. Le futur occupe également une place de choix chez Mercier, auteur de l’un des premiers romans d’anticipation. Il s’exprime prioritairement sous deux formes, la dégénérescence et la régénération. Alors même qu’il décrit l’état actuel de la ville, Mercier anticipe sa ruine. Une étroite corrélation s’instaure alors entre la construction et la destruction, qui est son aboutissement inéluctable. Ce phénomène s’accompagne de modulations esthétiques majeures : l’évocation de la perte plonge l’auteur dans la mélancolie et teinte son style de lyrisme et d’élégie. Si la Révolution ne fait pas disparaître cet imaginaire, elle le met entre parenthèses et entrevoit surtout son avenir sous la forme optimiste de la régénération. Ce concept clé, qui alimente projets et utopies, fait cohabiter de multiples modèles temporels, tels que la rupture radicale, le retour à l’origine, la régénération instantanée et la construction nationale. Le fondement du projet de Mercier demeure néanmoins de capter la contemporanéité. Tentant de fixer par l’écriture la fugitivité du temps, l’auteur s’engage dans une course désespérée qui le condamne à être perpétuellement décalé par rapport à l’actualité qu’il cherche à saisir. Au-delà de cette dimension transitoire, Mercier confère au présent une certaine stabilité en l’élevant au rang d’histoire. Ce phénomène touche surtout l’histoire révolutionnaire : afin de terminer la Révolution, les contemporains l’érigent en objet historique et tentent d’en comprendre les mécanismes. Corrélativement, l’histoire révolutionnaire acquiert un statut esthétique. Les réformes poétiques appelées par Mercier depuis le début de sa carrière littéraire (contemporanéité des sujets, originalité stylistique, esthétique de la force et du contraste, invention poétique et néologie) trouvent un terrain d’expression particulièrement fertile dans la représentation de l’histoire récente. / This dissertation analyzes the representation of historical time in Louis Sébastien Mercier’s Tableau de Paris (1781-1788) and Nouveau Paris (1798) and seeks to explain how this representation was transformed by the French Revolution, a major event that changed the way contemporaries conceived their place in history. These two works are considered as panoramic literature: as he walks through the neighbourhoods of Paris, the author describes the state of the city of his day as well as its inhabitants’ customs. Although Mercier is mostly interested in painting the present, his exploration of the city leads him to exhume the past that lies, like a palimpsest, beneath the surface. Crowded with specters from the past, the urban space generates a form of temporal density resulting from the coexistence of various times. But the persistence of the past is also highly problematic: Mercier’s faith in progress implies a constant reevaluation – if not a rejection – of antique references and national heritage. After the 1789 disruptions, new conceptual tools were developed to manage the past. If revolutionaries rejected radical destruction after the traumatic experience of the Terror, they invented a new way to put the past aside – patrimony. It is, paradoxically, by its conservational function that patrimony relegates the past to a status of dead history. The future also occupies a large place in Mercier’s works. It is represented under two antithetic forms: degeneracy and regeneration. While he describes the physiognomy of the city of his day, the author anticipates its ruin and establishes a strong correlation between construction and destruction (its inescapable outcome). This pessimistic representation of time modifies his aesthetics: as he evokes the ineluctability of loss, the author deals with a melancholy which colours his style with lyricism and elegy. This imaginative world does not entirely disappear with the Revolution, but it is marginalized. After 1789, the future is viewed mainly through the optimistic and utopian notion of regeneration, in which several conceptions of time coexist (radical rupture, return to an uncorrupted original state, instantaneous regeneration, the building of national unity, etc.). Although Mercier oscillates between past and future, his main goal is to capture a sense of contemporaneousness. As he tries to immobilize the continuous flux of time by writing, he finds himself in a hopeless race in which he is condemned to be perpetually behind the current events he wishes to paint. But Mercier goes beyond the fugitive nature of time and grants the present a status of historical discourse. This historiographical dimension mainly concerns revolutionary history: in order to end the Revolution, contemporaries set it up as historical knowledge and hope to understand its complex evolution. As it acquires an historical status, present history also becomes an aesthetical object. Poetical reforms that had long been called for by Mercier (contemporary topics, stylistic originality, contrast and strength, aesthetical invention and neology) are fully integrated in the representation of recent history.

Cette thèse a pour objectif d’analyser les représentations du temps historique dans le Tableau de Paris (1781-1788) et le Nouveau Paris (1798) de Louis Sébastien Mercier et de faire voir comment elles se transforment sous l’impact de la Révolution française, elle qui oblige les contemporains à réévaluer leur rapport au temps. Ces œuvres s’inscrivent dans la tradition de la littérature panoramique : l’auteur y décrit l’état de la capitale et donne à voir les mœurs de ses habitants. Si Mercier s’attache à peindre la physionomie actuelle de Paris, il en vient, au fil de ses promenades, à décrypter le passé qui est enfoui, comme un palimpseste, sous la surface présente. L’espace urbain, ainsi peuplé des spectres du passé, fait cohabiter de multiples strates temporelles et donne l’image d’un temps dense au sein duquel différentes époques sont coprésentes. La persistance du passé pose toutefois problème : c’est pourquoi l’héritage antique et national se voit réévalué – voire éradiqué – afin de répondre aux exigences de l’idéologie progressiste. Avec la Révolution, de nouveaux outils conceptuels sont élaborés pour gérer le rapport avec le passé : si les révolutionnaires rejettent, après la Terreur, les entreprises d’épuration par la destruction, ils développent un nouveau mode de mise à distance du passé, la patrimonialisation. Celle-ci, par la conservation même, relègue paradoxalement le passé au rang d’histoire morte. Le futur occupe également une place de choix chez Mercier, auteur de l’un des premiers romans d’anticipation. Il s’exprime prioritairement sous deux formes, la dégénérescence et la régénération. Alors même qu’il décrit l’état actuel de la ville, Mercier anticipe sa ruine. Une étroite corrélation s’instaure alors entre la construction et la destruction, qui est son aboutissement inéluctable. Ce phénomène s’accompagne de modulations esthétiques majeures : l’évocation de la perte plonge l’auteur dans la mélancolie et teinte son style de lyrisme et d’élégie. Si la Révolution ne fait pas disparaître cet imaginaire, elle le met entre parenthèses et entrevoit surtout son avenir sous la forme optimiste de la régénération. Ce concept clé, qui alimente projets et utopies, fait cohabiter de multiples modèles temporels, tels que la rupture radicale, le retour à l’origine, la régénération instantanée et la construction nationale. Le fondement du projet de Mercier demeure néanmoins de capter la contemporanéité. Tentant de fixer par l’écriture la fugitivité du temps, l’auteur s’engage dans une course désespérée qui le condamne à être perpétuellement décalé par rapport à l’actualité qu’il cherche à saisir. Au-delà de cette dimension transitoire, Mercier confère au présent une certaine stabilité en l’élevant au rang d’histoire. Ce phénomène touche surtout l’histoire révolutionnaire : afin de terminer la Révolution, les contemporains l’érigent en objet historique et tentent d’en comprendre les mécanismes. Corrélativement, l’histoire révolutionnaire acquiert un statut esthétique. Les réformes poétiques appelées par Mercier depuis le début de sa carrière littéraire (contemporanéité des sujets, originalité stylistique, esthétique de la force et du contraste, invention poétique et néologie) trouvent un terrain d’expression particulièrement fertile dans la représentation de l’histoire récente. / This dissertation analyzes the representation of historical time in Louis Sébastien Mercier’s Tableau de Paris (1781-1788) and Nouveau Paris (1798) and seeks to explain how this representation was transformed by the French Revolution, a major event that changed the way contemporaries conceived their place in history. These two works are considered as panoramic literature: as he walks through the neighbourhoods of Paris, the author describes the state of the city of his day as well as its inhabitants’ customs. Although Mercier is mostly interested in painting the present, his exploration of the city leads him to exhume the past that lies, like a palimpsest, beneath the surface. Crowded with specters from the past, the urban space generates a form of temporal density resulting from the coexistence of various times. But the persistence of the past is also highly problematic: Mercier’s faith in progress implies a constant reevaluation – if not a rejection – of antique references and national heritage. After the 1789 disruptions, new conceptual tools were developed to manage the past. If revolutionaries rejected radical destruction after the traumatic experience of the Terror, they invented a new way to put the past aside – patrimony. It is, paradoxically, by its conservational function that patrimony relegates the past to a status of dead history. The future also occupies a large place in Mercier’s works. It is represented under two antithetic forms: degeneracy and regeneration. While he describes the physiognomy of the city of his day, the author anticipates its ruin and establishes a strong correlation between construction and destruction (its inescapable outcome). This pessimistic representation of time modifies his aesthetics: as he evokes the ineluctability of loss, the author deals with a melancholy which colours his style with lyricism and elegy. This imaginative world does not entirely disappear with the Revolution, but it is marginalized. After 1789, the future is viewed mainly through the optimistic and utopian notion of regeneration, in which several conceptions of time coexist (radical rupture, return to an uncorrupted original state, instantaneous regeneration, the building of national unity, etc.). Although Mercier oscillates between past and future, his main goal is to capture a sense of contemporaneousness. As he tries to immobilize the continuous flux of time by writing, he finds himself in a hopeless race in which he is condemned to be perpetually behind the current events he wishes to paint. But Mercier goes beyond the fugitive nature of time and grants the present a status of historical discourse. This historiographical dimension mainly concerns revolutionary history: in order to end the Revolution, contemporaries set it up as historical knowledge and hope to understand its complex evolution. As it acquires an historical status, present history also becomes an aesthetical object. Poetical reforms that had long been called for by Mercier (contemporary topics, stylistic originality, contrast and strength, aesthetical invention and neology) are fully integrated in the representation of recent history. / Thèse réalisée en cotutelle avec l'Université Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), sous la direction de M. Michel Delon.