Many water treatment technologies for arsenic removal that are used today produce arsenic-bearing solid residuals (ABSR), which are disposed in mixed solid waste landfills. It is now well established that many of these residuals will release arsenic into the environment to a much greater extent than predicted by standard regulatory leaching tests and, consequently, require stabilization to ensure benign behaviour after disposal. Conventional waste stabilization technologies, such as cement encapsulation and vitrification, are not suitable for ABSR applications due to their lack of effectiveness or high cost, thus creating a need for a more effective and low-cost treatment technology for ABSR. Arsenic Crystallization Technology (ACT) is a proposed arsenic stabilization method that involves in converting the ABSR into arsenic-bearing minerals that resemble natural materials and have high arsenic capacity, long term stability, and low solubility compared to untreated ABSR. Three arsenic minerals, scorodite, arsenate apatite and ferrous arsenate, have been investigated in this research for their potential application as ACT for ABSR stabilization. Among the three minerals, ferrous arsenate is demonstrated to be the most suitable arsenate mineral for safe arsenic disposal due to its low arsenic solubility and ease of synthesis. An innovative treatment procedure has been developed in this research for stabilization of ABSR to a stable phase of ferrous arsenate using zero-valent iron (ZVI) as the reducing agent. The procedure works at ambient temperature and pressure, and neutral pH. In addition, a modified four-step sequential extraction method has been developed as a means to determine the proportions of various arsenic phases in the stabilized as well as untreated ABSR matrices. This extraction method, as well as traditional leach and solubility tests, show that arsenic stability in the solid phase is dramatically increased after formation of crystalline ferrous arsenate.

Water treatment residues (WTRs), which are by-products from the production of potable water, are chemically benign, inorganic materials which are suitable for disposal by land application. Their high phosphorus (P) sorption capacities have, however, generated some concern in an agronomic context where P is recognised as a growth limiting plant nutrient. The extent to which labile P pools are reduced or enhanced by WTR amendments is, therefore, a central issue with respect to their disposal by land application. Therefore, the aim of this study was, through the use of empirical adsorption isotherm equations and chemical fractionation of P within the residues, to investigate the chemical processes responsible for the retention and release of P from 15 South African WTRs. Chemical characterisation revealed considerable variation in residue properties relevant to P sorption-desorption processes. pH, exchangeable Ca and organic carbon content ranged from 4.77 to 8.37, 238 to 8 980 mg kg-1 and 0.50 to 11.6 %, respectively. Dithionate, oxalate and pyrophosphate extractable Al fractions ranged from 741 to 96 375, 1 980 to 82 947 and 130 to 37 200 mg kg-1, respectively. Dithionate, oxalate and pyrophosphate extractable Fe ranged from 441 to 15 288, 3 865 to 140 569 and 230 to 90 000 mg kg-1 respectively. Therefore mechanisms of retention were hypothesised to be residue specific, being dependent on the unique chemical properties of the sorbent. Elevated Ca and amorphous Al and Fe concentrations did, nevertheless, suggest that all residues had the capacity to adsorb high amounts of P and to retain this P in forms unavailable for plant uptake. These arguments were confirmed by the sorption study where labile P was, for all residues, found to constitute a small fraction of total applied P even at high application concentrations (128 mg P L-1). Sequential P fractionation revealed that most of the inherent P (which ranged from 1 149 to 1 727 mg P kg-1) and applied P were retained in highly resistant mineral phases or fixed within the organic component. Thus P replenishment capacities were restricted even though residual P concentrations were often within adequate ranges for plant growth. Phosphorus adsorption data was described by four empirical adsorption isotherm equations in an effort to determine possible mechanisms of retention. Sorption data was, for most of the WTRs, described by the Temkin isotherm while the Freundlich and linear models fitted data for two residues each. A key finding was that the distribution coefficient (Kd) tended to increase with the quantity of P adsorbed (S) as opposed to decrease or remain constant in accordance with model assumptions. Therefore, the models could not be used for mechanistic interpretation, even though they provided excellent descriptions of the data. The direct relationship between Kd and S suggested a mechanism of retention involving the activation of sorption sites. This notion was supported by the fractionation study which showed that P addition results in the transfer of an increasing quantity of organically bound P to resistant residual forms. Model affinity parameters were strongly correlated to dithionate and pyrophosphate extractable Al and Fe which suggested that P was adsorbed primarily through ligand exchange mechanisms. The mobility of P bound to organic fractions did indicate that P was retained through weaker forces of attraction such as monodentate ligand exchange, charge neutralisation or proton transfer. Evidence to support the notion that P is immobilised through the formation of Ca phosphates was lacking. Based on P fractionation data, it was suggested that strong chemisorption mechanisms and the diffusion of P into WTR micropores were largely responsible for the minimal quantity of P desorbed by disequilibria desorption processes. A greater quantity of P was desorbed in the presence of oxalate and citrate which suggested that plants may increase bio-available pools through the release of organic ligands. Phosphorus desorbed in the presence of these ligands did, however, decline with P addition which confirmed that the affinity of the WTR surface for P increases with P application. Therefore, it was concluded that the application of P to WTRs is an uneconomical process unless sorption sites are already saturated or immobilisation processes are inhibited. In light of these findings, it was suggested that the absence of plant P deficiencies under the field application of WTRs is due primarily to inhibited sorption. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Water treatment residue (WTR), a by-product of the water treatment process, consists primarily of precipitated hydroxides of the coagulants used in the water treatment process, along with sand, silt, clay, humic compounds, and dissolved organic matter. It is usually disposed of by landfill, a technology with numerous problems that include dwindling landfill capacity, extensive dewatering requirements for the WTRs, high costs of transportation, and potential liability for landfill clean-up. Therefore, land disposal (or land treatment) presents a popular alternative disposal method based on the principle that the physical, chemical, and microbial properties of the soil can be used to assimilate applied waste without inducing any negative effects on soil quality. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of land disposal of the WTR generated by Umgeni Water, a local water treatment authority, on soil quality. These effects were investigated using depth samples from soil profiles of Westleigh and Hutton soil forms at field trials located at Ukulinga Research Farm, near Pietermartizburg and Brookdale Farm, Howick, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, respectively. Four rates of WTR (0, 80, 320, and 1280Mg ha-1 incorporated into the soil) were investigated at both trials, in addition to mulched treatments at rates of 320 and 1280Mg ha-1 at Brookdale only. Sampling of plots was carried out in September 2001 and May 2002, and all treatments were investigated under fallow and grassed cultivation. Laboratory measurements used to assess soil quality included pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (QC), and microbial activity using f1uorescein diacetate (FDA) hydrolysis. At both trials in September 2001 WTR-amended plots displayed higher pH in the 0-200mm soil in comparison to the controls, whereas by May 2002 pH had returned to the condition of the controls. Addition of WTR at Ukulinga resulted in higher QC in September 2001, but in May 2002 this was similar to the controls. However, at Brookdale QC was unaffected by WTR. At Ukulinga and Brookdale the effect of WTR on EC was variable, and microbial activity in the soil profile was unaffected by WTR addition. Observations at Ukulinga and Brookdale reflected long term changes (3 and 5 years, respectively) to soil quality following WTR addition. To examine the initial changes in soil quality a laboratory experiment was set up using the field trial soils. Research objectives were also extended to include WTRs from Rand Water (Johannesburg), Midvaal Water Company (Stilfontein), Amatola Water (East London), and two samples from the Faure Water Treatment Plant (near Cape Town). The second Faure sample (Faure2 ) was collected when blue green algal problems were experienced at the plant. The measurements used to investigate these short term effects on soil quality were soil pH, EC, and microbial activity as indicated by respiration rate. Each of the WTRs added to the Hutton and Westleigh soils increased soil pH by varying increments, and the higher the WTR application rate, the higher was the pH recorded. With the exception of the Rand and Umgeni WTRs that clearly increased soil EC, the effect of the otherWTRs on EC was variable. The Faure1 and Amatola WTRs appeared to have no effect on microbial activity, whereas the Umgeni, Rand, Midvaal, and Faure2 WTRs stimulated microbial activity by Day 2 following the addition of WTR, but this had declined by Day 14. As for pH, higher microbial activity was recorded at higher WTR application rates. Changes in microbial community structure of the Hutton soil only, following the addition of WTR were examined using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis. Community profiles of the different WTRs proved to be markedly different. However, WTR-amended soil retained banding patterns consistent with the control soil indicating that dominant populations in the Hutton soil had been retained. The field trials indicated that long term effects of land disposal of WTR were not detrimental to the measured indicators of soil quality namely, pH, EC, QC, and microbial activity. The laboratory assessments of the short term response of the Hutton and Westleigh soil forms to WTR addition suggested that the tested variables were altered by WTR, but not significantly changed to the detriment of soil quality. Microbial community analysis indicated that the community structure of the Hutton soil was not significantly altered by WTR amendments. Present findings provide no evidence to suggest that land disposal of WTR is detrimental to soil quality. It is therefore regarded as a feasible disposal option although there are some aspects that should be investigated further. These include investigations into rhizosphere/microbial interactions and the feasibility of growing cash crops. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

<p>We explore the posterior inference available for Bayesian spatial point process models. In the literature, discussion of such models is usually focused on model fitting and rejecting complete spatial randomness, with model diagnostics and posterior inference often left as an afterthought. Posterior predictive point patterns are shown to be useful in performing model diagnostics and model selection, as well as providing a wide array of posterior model summaries. We prescribe Bayesian residuals and methods for cross-validation and model selection for Poisson processes, log-Gaussian Cox processes, Gibbs processes, and cluster processes. These novel approaches are demonstrated using existing datasets and simulation studies.</p> / Dissertation

Els virus JC i BK pertanyen a la família Polyomaviridae i fan infeccions al ronyó d'un 60-80% d'individus adults arreu del món sense causar en principi cap simptomatologia. En condicions d'immunosupressió JC pot ocasionar una malaltia letal del cervell anomenada leucoencefalopatia multifocal progressiva (PML) que afecta un 4% de pacients de SIDA, BK pot ocasionar nefropatia en pacients trasplantats de ronyó. Ambdós virus s'han relacionat recentment amb tumors de cervell i JC amb tumors colorectals. La ruta de transmissió d'aquests virus roman desconeguda.Entre els anys 1955-1961, SV40, un poliomavirus que infecta micos rhesus, va ser administrat a la població en ser un contaminant de les cèl·lules utilitzades per produir les vacunes de la polio. Recentment, SV40 ha estat detectat en tumors humans i la possibilitat de que infecti la població està sent considerada.L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi doctoral va ser el d'estudiar l'excreció d'aquest virus per part de la població de diverses zones geogràfiques. En la primera part de l'estudi es va dissenyar un mètode per detectar els poliomavirus BK, JC i SV40 en mostres d'aigua residual urbana i altres mostres ambientals. La detecció de virus en aquestes mostres permet estudiar els virus excretats per comunitats senceres en un moment i en un indret determinat. El mètode desenvolupat va permetre concentrar i detectar per PCR niada les partícules víriques (PV) de JC, BK i SV40 presents en un total de 52 mostres d'aigua residual urbana de Barcelona, Umeå (Suècia), Nancy (França), Pretoria (Sudàfrica), Cairo (Egipte), Patras (Grècia) i Washington DC (EUA). També es va estudiar la presència de poliomavirus humans i SV40 en 10 mostres de mol·luscs bivalves (Tarragona) i en 23 mostres ambientals del Nord de la Índia.Es van detectar elevades concentracions de JC i BK (10 elevat a 3 i 10 elevat a 2 PV/ml respectivament) i absència de resultats positius per SV40. Es va estudiar l'estabilitat a 20ºC dels JC i BK presents en aquest tipus de mostres. En una segona part de l'estudi, els virus detectats van ser tipificats, analitzats filogenèticament i l'estructura de la seva regió reguladora (RR) va ser caracteritzada. L'estudi de la regió intergènica (RI) de JC va permetre construir un arbre filogenetic que relacionava les soques detectades amb l'origen ètnic de les poblacions estudiades. L'estudi de la RR de JC va permetre concloure que la majoria dels JC presents en aigües residuals presenten una configuració arquetípica d'aquesta regió (al igual que passa amb BK) tot i que es va detectar un petit percentatge de soques amb RR reorganitzades en l'aigua residual de Washington DC. En la tercera part d'aquest estudi, es descriu per primera vegada com PV dels JC i BK arquetípics presents en una mostra d'orina d'una dona embarassada van infectar cèl·lules SVG. JC Mad-4 (soca control) tractat amb tripsina va infectar cèl·lules SVG al igual que Mad-4 sense tractar. Mad-4 tractat amb pH 3 durant 1 hora va infectar les cèl·lules produint però un descens en el títol de la progènie.Aquests resultats ens van fer suggerir una ruta de transmissió de JC a partir d'aigües o aliments contaminats a través del tracte gastrointestinal.Es va estudiar l'excreció de les PV de SV40 excretades per una població de micos Cynomolgus naturalment infectats amb el virus. Es van detectar soques arquetípiques de SV40 en la meitat de les gàbies analitzades confirmant que el mètode desenvolupat permet detectar SV40 en mostres ambientals. L'absència de SV40 en les mostres estudiades indica que el virus no està sent excretat per la població estudiada que està present en molt baixes concentracions (<5PV/ml d'aigua residual).

El gènere Bifidobacterium adquireix una gran importància com a microorganisme indicador de contaminació fecal. És un dels gèneres predominants en la microbiota intestinal humana i d'alguns animals de sang calenta arribant a unes concentracions entre 109 i 1010 cèl·lules/g de femta. La fisiologia anaeròbia, els requeriments nutricionals complexes i la seva incapacitat de multiplicar-se per sota dels 30ºC, fan que Bifidobacterium no pugi replicar-se a nivell extraentèric.L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi ha estat la optimització de les tècniques presents per a la detecció de Bifidobacterium spp. en mostres d'aigua residual per a la possible utilització de certes espècies d'aquest gènere bacterià com a indicadores de la contaminació fecal i determinar l'origen d'aquesta:1. Avaluar l'enumeració de Bifidobacterium spp. en tres medis selectius diferents, i comparar les diferents poblacions bacterianes de Bifidobacterium analitzades amb altres indicadors microbians en aigües.2. Definir proporcions entre les diferents poblacions d'indicadors i les bifidobactèries que permetin diferenciar l'origen humà o animal de la contaminació fecal en aigües.3. Determinar quines espècies de Bifidobacterium que s'han associat prèviament com exclusives dels humans, es troben només en aigües residuals urbanes. 4. Desenvolupar una tècnica molecular per a la detecció de les espècies de Bifidobacterium associades exclusivament a aigües residuals d'origen humà.5. Analitzar l'ús combinat d'aquest nou mètode molecular amb la proporció de les bifidobactèries fermentadores de sorbitol i de les bifidobactèries totals en el medi selectiu HBSA.6. Desenvolupar una PCR quantitativa en temps real per a la detecció de les espècies B. adolescentis i B. dentium. 7. Comparar les dues tècniques moleculars desenvolupades, PCR múltiple ADO-DEN i PCR quantitativa en temps real en aigües residuals d'origen humà.8. Comparar la persistència de les poblacions indicadores de la contaminació fecal en aigües juntament amb el gènere Bifidobacterium en aigua de riu.Els medis selectius analitzats per a Bifidobacterium, Beerens, HBSA i BFM, van presentar unes enumeracions molt similars en aigües residuals, proporcionant una elevada especificitat per a les bifidobactèries. No obstant, el medi Beerens i HBSA van recuperar un nombre significativament igual i més elevat de bifidobactèries cultivables. La hibridació colonial amb la sonda Bif permet una confirmació pràctica de les enumeracions, donant una correcció de la fracció de creixement no específic que donen el medis utilitzats.La proporció de les colònies de Bifidobacterium fermentadores de sorbitol respecte el nombre de colònies totals crescudes en el medi HBSA és una eina eficaç per a la determinació de l'origen de la contaminació fecal. Les espècies B. adolescentis i B. dentium van presentar una elevada especificitat per a les aigües d'origen humà, tot i que no es pot descartar la presència de B. adolescentis en alguna espècie d'aviram.El desenvolupament de la PCR múltiple ADO-DEN per a les espècies B. adolescentis i B. dentium és una eina molecular complementària per a caracteritzar l'origen de la contaminació fecal en aigües. Presenta un llindar de detecció 103 UCF/100mL.Les PCRs quantitatives específiques desenvolupades permeten la quantificació de les espècies B. adolescentis i B. dentium proposades com a indicadores de la contaminació fecal humana en aigües residuals d'origen humà. Aquesta tècnica presenta un llindar de detecció més alt que la de la PCR múltiple ADO-DEN essent de 104 UCF/100mL. Hi ha una diferencia significativa (P<0,05) en les inactivacions de totes les poblacions bacterianes a l'estiu respecte les inactivacions a l'hivern on són més baixes. El gènere Bifidobacterium és potencialment un bon indicador de l'origen de la contaminació fecal recent en aigües. La seva baixa persistència en l'entorn fa però menys operatiu el seu ús quan la contaminació fecal és remota en el temps. / The genus "Bifidobacterium" is proposed as indicators to identify the source of fecal pollution, since certain "Bifidobacterium" spp. are found only in humans, since it is abundant in the intestinal microbiota of humans and other warm-blooded animals. These organisms could be used to distinguish between human and animal pollution. They are found at a concentration of between 109 and 1010 cells/g in feces. Additionally, their anaerobic physiology, complex nutritional requirements and inability to multiply below 30ºC mean that they are unlikely to reproduce in extraenteric environments.The objective of this thesis has been the optimization of the techniques presents for the detection of "Bifidobacterium" spp. in samples of residual water. The selective media analyzed for "Bifidobacterium", Beerens, HBSA and BFM, they presented some very similar enumerations in residual water, provided a high specificity for the detection of bifidobacteria. Nevertheless, the enumeration of bifidobacteria was evaluated using three selective media. Beerens and HBSA media showed similar recoveries, with no statistically significant difference and BFM showed statistically different recovery for Bifidobacterium than the recovery on Beerens and HBSA media.The confirmation by colony hybridization of colonies of "Bifidobacterium" grown on the selective media revealed that some colonies belong to anaerobic bacterial genera other than bifidobacteria. The HBSA medium allows the calculation of the ratio Y/T that showed to distinguish fecal pollution origin. Values of this ratio higher than 0.20 indicate human origin. Values below 0.20 indicate animal origin. These results support previous studies postulating the use of sorbitol-fermenting bifidobacteria as human fecal indicators in sewageIn this study a multiple PCR for "B. adolescentis" and "B. dentium" species was developed to be used as a complementary molecular tool to characterize the origin of the fecal contamination in water. The threshold of this technique is 103 CFU/100mL. In order to quantify both species a quantitative PCR for "B. adolescentis" and "B. dentium" (proposed as indicators for human fecal contamination in residual water of human origin) was developed. This technique presents a threshold higher than the PCR multiple ADO-DEN being of 104 UCF/100mL. The genus "Bifidobacterium" is potentially a good indicator of the origin of the recent fecal contamination in water. But its low persistence in the environmental waters is a handicap when the fecal pollution is not recent.

Els canvis a l'estructura i composició de les poblacions de coliforms fecals i enterococs al llarg de diferents processos de depuració de les aigües residuals a cinc plantes depuradores d'aigües residuals van ser analitzats amb la finalitat de determinar possibles eliminacions selectives entre soques d'aquests grups de bacteris. En aquest sentit, es van analitzar també les sub-poblacions d'enterococs resistents als antibiòtics vancomicina i eritromicina (VRE y ERE respectivament) com a marcadors per a valorar la seva persistència en els diferents processos de depuració. La elecció d'aquestes sub-poblacions com a marcadors va ser degut al seu interès clínic. Es va analitzar l'impacte de les aigües tractades en una de les cinc depuradores en les poblacions de coliforms fecals i enterococs del riu receptor. També es van comparar l'estructura i la composició de les poblacions d'aquests indicadors bacterians entre les aigües residuals i els fangs d'una altra del les 5 depuradores estudiades. Finalment es va comparar la diversitat i l'estructura poblacional dels entrerococs (inclosos VRE i ERE) a les aigües residuals de depuradores, de diversos hospitals i de les aigües de recepció de les emissions de les aigües tractades, entre zones geogràfiques situades en diferents països (Espanya, Suècia i Regne Unit). La diversitat i la similitud poblacional de coliforms fecals i enterococs es van estudiar mitjançant fenotipat bioquímic d'un nombre significatiu de soques i el seu posterior anàlisi estadístic mitjançant estudis de correlació i agrupació. Totes les mostres van presentar alts índex de diversitat per a totes les poblacions bacterianes estudiades. L'estructura i la composició d'aquestes poblacions va resultar molt semblant independentment del seu origen, sistema de tractament o tipus de mostra, tal i com demostraren els elevats índex de similitud poblacional obtinguts al comparar les diferents mostres. Tant els enterococs resistents a la vancomicina com els resistents a l'eritromicina es van trobar també en tots els tipus de mostra, quan es compararen les mostres d'aigües analitzades entre els diferents països. No es va observar una eliminació selectiva de clons poblacionals a les aigües residuals en cap de les plantes de tractament estudiades. Les poblacions de VRE i ERE persisteixen després dels tractaments de depuració de les aigües, així com també en els dos tipus de fangs analitzats. Aquestes poblacions es van detectar tant abans com després de l'emissari de la depuradora en els punts de riu estudiats. La persistència d'aquestes poblacions s'hauria de considerar en els programes de regeneració d'aigües residuals i l'aplicació dels fangs. / The changes in structure and composition of the bacterial faecal coliforms and enterococcal populations from different treatment plants, and the elimination of vancomycin- and erythromycin-resistant enterococci (VRE and ERE, respectively) in these treatment plants was analyzed to determine any selective reduction. Moreover, a rural sewage treatment plant and the effect of its effluent on the enterococci and faecal coliforms populations in the receiving river waters were evaluated. In the same way, the composition and structure of these two bacterial indicators were compared between municipal sewage (raw and treated) and sludge (in two stadiums of sewage treatment process) in a biological sewage treatment plant. Finally, enterococcal populations, including VRE and ERE, from hospital sewage, urban sewage, and river water, were analyzed and compared between Spain, Sweden and U.K. The diversity and similarity of faecal coliforms and enterococci populations were evaluated by biochemical fingerprinting and clustering analysis. All samples showed high values for diversity indexes, and high populations similarity were found for faecal coliforms and enterococci populations, independently of the origin, treatment process, or the kind of sample. VRE and ERE were found in all kind of samples and in the case of Spain, in the same proportion respect total enterococci (10% for ERE and between 0,1 - 0,01% for VRE). The enterococcal populations showed also high similarity between samples analyzed in Spain, Sweden and U.K.There is no changes on the structure and composition of the studied bacterial populations in sewages, receiving waters and sludges. It was observed the persistence of VRE and ERE populations in any kind of analysed sample. This should be considered in water reuse programmes and in the disposal of sludges. / RESUMEN:Los cambios en la estructura y composición de las poblaciones de coliformes fecales y enterococos a lo largo de los distintos procesos de depuración de las aguas residuales en cinco plantas depuradoras de aguas residuales fueron analizados con el fin de determinar posibles eliminaciones selectivas entre las cepas de estos grupos de bacterias. En este sentido, se analizaron también las sub-poblaciones de enterococos resistentes a los antibióticos vancomicina y eritromicina (VRE y ERE respectivamente) como marcadores para valorar su persistencia en los diferentes procesos de depuración. La elección de estas dos sub-poblaciones como marcadores fue debido a su interés clínico. También se analizó el impacto de las aguas tratadas de una de las cinco depuradoras sobre las poblaciones de coliformes fecales y enterococos del río receptor. Así también se compararon la estructura y la composición de las poblaciones de estos indicadores bacterianos entre las aguas residuales y los fangos de otra de las 5 estaciones estudiadas. Finalmente se comparó la diversidad y la estructura poblacional de los enterococos (incluidos VRE y ERE) en las aguas residuales de depuradoras, de diversos hospitales y de las aguas de recepción de los vertidos de aguas residuales tratadas, entre tres zonas geográficas situadas en distintos países (España, Suecia y Reino Unido). La diversidad y la similitud poblacional de coliformes fecales y enterococos fueron evaluadas mediante un fenotipado bioquímico de un número significativo de cepas, y su posterior análisis estadístico mediante estudios de correlación y agrupación. Todas las muestras presentaron altos índices de diversidad para las poblaciones bacterianas estudiadas. estructura y la composición de dichas poblaciones resultó muy parecida independientemente de su origen, sistema de tratamiento o el tipo de muestra, tal y como lo demostraron los elevados índices de similitud poblacional obtenidos al comparar las distintas muestras. Tanto los enterococos resistentes a la vancomicina como los resistentes a la eritromicina se encontraron también en todos los tipos de muestra, siendo mayor la proporción de las poblaciones de ERE. También se detectaron índices de similitud poblacional elevados para las poblaciones de enterococos estudiados y la presencia de VRE y ERE en todos los tipos de muestra, cuando se compararon las muestras de aguas analizadas de los distintos países.No se observó una eliminación selectiva de clones poblacionales en las aguas residuales para ninguna de las plantas de tratamiento estudiadas. Las poblaciones de VRE y ERE persisten después de los tratamientos de depuración de aguas, así como también en los dos tipos de lodos analizados. Dichas poblaciones se detectaron tanto antes como después del vertido de las aguas depuradas en todos los puntos muestreados del río. La persistencia de estas poblaciones de enterococos resistentes a antibióticos debe considerarse en los programas de regeneración de aguas residuales y en el vertido o aplicación de lodos.

O aumento da demanda de água potável e por conseqüência dos resíduos gerados, tem levado a indústria da água no Brasil, composto por aproximadamente 7500 ETAs, a deparar-se com dispendiosos ônus técnicos e financeiros no gerenciamento destes resíduos. Os sólidos, e, inclusive metais são os principais constituintes dos resíduos gerados durante o tratamento de água, sejam nos decantadores ou filtros. A compreensão da produção dos metais e sólidos em um ETA, assume grande importância. Apresenta-se neste estudo, os aspectos que envolvem a presença de metais e sólidos no tratamento de água. Realizou-se a avaliação dos metais nas diferentes etapas do tratamento de água. Realizou-se a avaliação dos metais nas diferentes etapas do tratamento, assim como a estimativa de produção de sólidos suspensos totais e em metais em uma ETA convencional que utiliza como coagulante sulfato de alumínio. Para tanto foram coletadas amostras de água de diferentes etapas do tratamento (captação, coagulação, floculação/sedimentação, filtração e estabilização final) e dos resíduos de decantadores e água de lavagem dos filtros ETA/São Carlos-SAAE. Os metais foram determinados em espectrofotômetro de absorção atômica, com pré-concentração de metais em coluna de troca iônica (resina catiônica fortemente ácida). A liberação de material dissolvido foi observada, ao longo das unidades de tratamento; parcela dos sólidos dissolvidos liberados são constituídos de metais dissolvidos ressolubilizados e/ou não removidos. Entretanto, tais afirmações são passíveis de estudos complementares. Na água tratada foram verificadas concentrações de chumbo, acima do limite de 10 &#956/L estabelecido pelo Padrão de Potabilidade, Portaria nº 1469/2000. A partir do balanço de massa e de análises realizadas nos resíduos estimou-se a produção diária de sólidos e de metais, e verificou-se retenção, nos decantadores, principalmente da fração particulada dos metais. A adição de produtos químicos contribuiu com cerca de 37% dos sólidos produzidos na ETA/São Carlos. / The increase in the demand for drinking water and consequently in the generated residues, has taking the Brazilian industry of water, composed of approximately 7500 WTPs, to come across high technical and financial costs in the management of these residues. Metals and solids are the main constituents of the residues generated during the water treatment, either in the sedimentation tank or in filters. Thus the understanding of the production of metals and solids in a WTP is of assumes great importance. This study presents the aspects that involve the presence of metals and solids in the water treatment. The evaluation of the metals in different stages of the treatment, as well as the estimate of the production of solids and metals in a conventional ETA using aluminum sulfate as coagulant have been carried out. Samples of water were collected in different stages of the treatment (raw water, coagulation, flocculation/sedimentation, filtration and finished water) from sludge coagulant and filter backwash waters of WTP/São Carlos-SAAE. The metals were determined in spectrophotomic of atomic absorption, with pre-concentration of metals in column ofionic change (strongly acid resin cationic). The release of dissolved material was observed, along the units of treatment; part of the relesead dissolved solids is constituted by ressolubilized and/or removed dissolved metals. However, such statements are susceptible to complementary studies. In the treated water lead concentrations were verified, above the limit of 10 &#956g/L established by the Standard for Drinking Water, nº 1469/2000. From the mass balance and the analyses accomplished in the residues the daily production of solids and metals, was estimated and retention of mainly particulate fraction of metals was verified, in sedimentation tanks. The addition of chemical products contributed with approximately 37% of the solids produced at WTP/São Carlos.

An extremal property of normal distributions is that they have the smallest Fisher Information for location among all distributions with the same variance. A new test of normality proposed by Terrell (1995) utilizes the above property by finding that density of maximum likelihood constrained on having the expected Fisher Information under normality based on the sample variance. The test statistic is then constructed as a ratio of the resulting likelihood against that of normality. Since the asymptotic distribution of this test statistic is not available, the critical values for n = 3 to 200 have been obtained by simulation and smoothed using polynomials. An extensive power study shows that the test has superior power against distributions that are symmetric and leptokurtic (long-tailed). Another advantage of the test over existing ones is the direct depiction of any deviation from normality in the form of a density estimate. This is evident when the test is applied to several real data sets. Testing of normality in residuals is also investigated. Various approaches in dealing with residuals being possibly heteroscedastic and correlated suffer from a loss of power. The approach with the fewest undesirable features is to use the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) residuals in place of independent observations. From simulations, it is shown that one has to be careful about the levels of the normality tests and also in generalizing the results. / Ph. D.

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