The differentiation of plant vascular tissue is regulated by plant hormones and transcription factors. One of the key plant hormones involved in this process is auxin. Auxin signals are mediated by auxin response factor transcription factors (ARFs). These transcription factors are involved in the perception of auxin signals and the subsequent activation or deactivation of suites of downstream genes. Based on its mutant phenotype, one of the most interesting members of this family is the ARF MONOPTEROS (MP). This thesis investigates the role played by MP in secondary vascular differentiation, as well as taking a look at other molecular aspects of secondary vascular differentiation, with a focus on the model plants Arabidopsis thaliana and poplar (Populus trichocarpa and hybrid poplar). A dexamethasone inducible RNAi silencing strategy was developed, and transgenic Arabidopsis lines produced. When silencing was induced in these lines from germination, a phenotype closely resembling the mp mutant was observed. When MP silencing was induced in bolting stems, early senescence, as well as a dramatic reduction in interfascicular fibre production was observed, and these stems were thinner and less rigid than empty vector controls. RNA from these stems was isolated and used in a global transcript profiling microarray experiment. This experiment showed that several auxin-related genes, as well as several transcription factors, were differentially regulated in response to MP silencing. Because Arabidopsis is not a typical woody plant, further investigation into the role played by MP in wood formation was done using the model tree poplar. A BLAST search of a poplar xylem EST database identified a single promising partial sequence. Based on this sequence information, a poplar MP homolog was isolated and named PopMP1. The full-length sequence of this gene demonstrated remarkable structural conservation when compared with that of Arabidopsis. Subsequent complete sequencing of the poplar genome revealed a second copy of the MP gene in poplar and named PopMP2. Expression profiling across a range of tissues suggests that subfunctionalization has occurred between the two copies. Overexpression transgenic lines for PoptrMP1 were developed. AtHB8 is known to be regulated by MP in Arabidopsis, and a poplar HB8 homolog was upregulated in the transgenic lines. However, no obvious physical phenotype in these lines was apparent. To investigate the transcriptome-wide changes associated with initiation of cambium formation in poplar stems, a global transcript profiling experiment was performed. Out of 15400 genes tested, 2320 met an arbitrary cutoff of >1.3 fold and p-value <0.05 and were labeled differentially expressed (DE). These included several transcription factors and showed remarkable similarity to analogous data from Arabidopsis. The conclusions drawn from this thesis support the hypothesis that MP plays roles in later development, and do not rule out the possibility that MP is directly involved in wood development. The data reported also offer a large number of candidate for further investigation into the genetic control of wood development.

The differentiation of plant vascular tissue is regulated by plant hormones and transcription factors. One of the key plant hormones involved in this process is auxin. Auxin signals are mediated by auxin response factor transcription factors (ARFs). These transcription factors are involved in the perception of auxin signals and the subsequent activation or deactivation of suites of downstream genes. Based on its mutant phenotype, one of the most interesting members of this family is the ARF MONOPTEROS (MP). This thesis investigates the role played by MP in secondary vascular differentiation, as well as taking a look at other molecular aspects of secondary vascular differentiation, with a focus on the model plants Arabidopsis thaliana and poplar (Populus trichocarpa and hybrid poplar). A dexamethasone inducible RNAi silencing strategy was developed, and transgenic Arabidopsis lines produced. When silencing was induced in these lines from germination, a phenotype closely resembling the mp mutant was observed. When MP silencing was induced in bolting stems, early senescence, as well as a dramatic reduction in interfascicular fibre production was observed, and these stems were thinner and less rigid than empty vector controls. RNA from these stems was isolated and used in a global transcript profiling microarray experiment. This experiment showed that several auxin-related genes, as well as several transcription factors, were differentially regulated in response to MP silencing. Because Arabidopsis is not a typical woody plant, further investigation into the role played by MP in wood formation was done using the model tree poplar. A BLAST search of a poplar xylem EST database identified a single promising partial sequence. Based on this sequence information, a poplar MP homolog was isolated and named PopMP1. The full-length sequence of this gene demonstrated remarkable structural conservation when compared with that of Arabidopsis. Subsequent complete sequencing of the poplar genome revealed a second copy of the MP gene in poplar and named PopMP2. Expression profiling across a range of tissues suggests that subfunctionalization has occurred between the two copies. Overexpression transgenic lines for PoptrMP1 were developed. AtHB8 is known to be regulated by MP in Arabidopsis, and a poplar HB8 homolog was upregulated in the transgenic lines. However, no obvious physical phenotype in these lines was apparent. To investigate the transcriptome-wide changes associated with initiation of cambium formation in poplar stems, a global transcript profiling experiment was performed. Out of 15400 genes tested, 2320 met an arbitrary cutoff of >1.3 fold and p-value <0.05 and were labeled differentially expressed (DE). These included several transcription factors and showed remarkable similarity to analogous data from Arabidopsis. The conclusions drawn from this thesis support the hypothesis that MP plays roles in later development, and do not rule out the possibility that MP is directly involved in wood development. The data reported also offer a large number of candidate for further investigation into the genetic control of wood development.

Submitted by Ana Hilda Fonseca (anahilda@ufba.br) on 2016-09-08T14:22:01Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese de Doutorado - Ivon P. Lôbo.pdf: 3344901 bytes, checksum: 7e73b89d7c92c4df99ab47eb630bca7c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Vanessa Reis (vanessa.jamile@ufba.br) on 2016-09-08T14:40:02Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese de Doutorado - Ivon P. Lôbo.pdf: 3344901 bytes, checksum: 7e73b89d7c92c4df99ab47eb630bca7c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-08T14:40:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese de Doutorado - Ivon P. Lôbo.pdf: 3344901 bytes, checksum: 7e73b89d7c92c4df99ab47eb630bca7c (MD5) / Dentre os parâmetros estabelecidos para garantia da qualidade do biodiesel, o teor de ésteres destaca-se por refletir a pureza do biocombustível a ser misturado ao diesel mineral. Com esse objetivo, é preconizado pela Resolução 07/08 da ANP o método cromatográfico EN ISO 14103, que se baseia na comparação da área total dos picos dos ésteres com a área relativa ao padrão heptadecanoato de metila (C17:0-Me). Este método apresenta inconvenientes como o alto custo do padrão C17:0-Me e a sua aplicabilidade na quantificação de ésteres com cadeia carbônica com menos de 16 carbonos. Essa limitação é decorrente da maior deficiência de carbono para os ésteres de cadeia curta, resultando em respostas diferenciadas no FID. Outro ponto que deve ser destacado é que o C17:0-Me poderá estar presente em biodieseis de diferentes óleos e gorduras e poderá acarretar em erros de quantificação. Neste trabalho, foram propostos Fatores de Correção Split (FRS), baseados na razão entre a proporção de carbonos ativos na molécula do éster e na sua resposta relativa no GC FID. O propósito desses fatores é corrigir as respostas no FID para ésteres com cadeia menor que 16 carbonos e a discriminação das massas dos ésteres mais pesados, no momento da injeção split. Os FRS mostraram uma correlação linear com as respectivas massas molares, permitindo assim realizar previsão dos FRS dos ésteres do biodiesel, a partir dos FRS de três padrões adicionados a amostra. Os padrões internos empregados foram C12:0-Et, C14:0-Et e C18:1-Et nas análises de biodieseis metílicos e C12:0-Me, C14:0-Me e C18:0-Me para os biodieseis etílicos. Utilizando FRS para a análise de uma amostra sintética simulando o biodiesel de babaçu, onde estavam presentes ésteres de cadeia curta em concentrações significativas, os erros de previsão (EP%) foram respectivamente 1,4; 2,7; 1,4; 2,2; e 3,2%, para os ésteres C6:0-Et, C8:0-Et, C10:0-Et, C12:0-Et, C14:0-Et; contra 24,4; 13,5, 6,2; 2,4 e 2,0% para os mesmos ésteres determinados via padrão C17:0-Me. Para amostras reais de biodieseis de dendê, soja e pinhão manso, onde os ésteres mais leves estão presentes em concentrações não superiores a 1%, os resultados das análises realizadas através dos FRSPreditos e via padrão C17:0-Me não apresentaram diferenças significativas, conforme a avaliação do método de referência EN ISO 14103. Mesmo utilizando uma quantidade maior de padrões internos, o método proposto apresenta um custo mais baixo que o método oficial, permitindo inclusive a quantificação de C17:0-Me que possa vir está presente na amostra do biodiesel. O método mostrou-se confiável, sendo aplicável a análise de biodieseis metílico e etílicos de óleos e gorduras, onde a concentração de ésteres com cadeia carbônica menor que C16 não seja superior a 1%. / Among the parameters set for quality assurance of biodiesel, the ester content stands out because it reflects the purity of the biofuel to be blended with mineral diesel. With this objective, it is recommended by Resolution 07/08 of the ANP the chromatographic method EN ISO 14 103, which is based on a comparison of the total area of the peaks of the esters with the area on the standard methyl heptadecanoate (C17:0-Me). This method has drawbacks such as high cost of the standard C17:0-Me and its applicability in the quantification of esters with chains with less than 16 carbons. This limitation is due to higher carbon deficiency for short chain esters, resulting in differential responses on the FID. Another point to be stressed is that the C17:0-Me may be present in biodiesel of different oils and fats and can cause errors in measurement. In this work, split response factors (SRF) have been proposed, based on the ratio between the proportion of active carbons in the ester molecule and its response on the GC FID. The purpose of these factors is the correct answers to the FID chain esters with less than 16 carbons and discrimination of the masses of heavier esters, during the split injection. The SRF showed a linear correlation with their molecular weights, thus allowing prediction of SRF held the esters of biodiesel, from the FRS three patterns added to the sample. The internal standards used were C12 :0- Et, Et and C14 :0-C18 :1-Et in the analysis of methyl biodiesels and C12 :0-Me, Me, and C14 :0-C18 :0-Me for ethyl biodiesels. Using SRF to the analysis of a sample simulating synthetic biodiesel from babassu, where were these short chain esters in high concentrations, the prediction errors (PE%) were respectively 1.4, 2.7, 1.4, 2.2 , and 3.2% for C6 :0-Et ester, C8 :0-Et, C10 :0-Et, Et :0-C12, C14 :0-Et, against 24.4, 13.5, 6 , 2, 2.4 and 2.0% for the same esters determined via standard C17 :0-Me. For samples of palm, soybean and jatropha biodieseis, where the lighter esters are present in concentrations not exceeding 1%, the results of analysis performed by SRF predicted and by standard route C17:0-Me showed no significant differences, as evaluation of the reference method EN ISO 14 103. Even using a larger amount of internal standards, the proposed method has a lower cost than the official method, permitting a quantification of C17 :0-Me which may present in the sample of biodiesel. This method was reliable and applicable to analysis of methyl and ethyl esters oils and fats, where the concentration of esters with carbon chain less that C16 is not more than 1%.

The ratio of auxin to cytokinin determines de novo organogenesis in plants. Relatively little is known about the effect of genetically altered auxin signaling on in vitro organogenesis. Here, callusogenesis, shoot, and root formation were studied in loss- (LOF) and gain-of-function (GOF) alleles in two phylogenetically related Auxin Response Factors (ARFs), MONOPTEROS (MP/ARF5) and NON-PHOTOTROPHIC HYPOCOTYL 4 (NPH4/ARF7). Reduced MP activity greatly diminished shoot regeneration, and partially diminished callusogenesis and root formation. LOF in NPH4 strongly decreased callusogenesis, and mildly decreased shoot and root regeneration in particular categories of explants. By contrast, organogenesis responses were strongly increased in aerial explants carrying the GOF transgene dMP. Thus, both MP and NPH4 seem to act as positive regulators of certain organogenesis processes and the GOF dMP transgene may be of interest for stimulating organogenesis in plant species with poor regeneration properties. Also, organogenesis in vitro may reveal unknown developmental ARF functions.

The ratio of auxin to cytokinin determines de novo organogenesis in plants. Relatively little is known about the effect of genetically altered auxin signaling on in vitro organogenesis. Here, callusogenesis, shoot, and root formation were studied in loss- (LOF) and gain-of-function (GOF) alleles in two phylogenetically related Auxin Response Factors (ARFs), MONOPTEROS (MP/ARF5) and NON-PHOTOTROPHIC HYPOCOTYL 4 (NPH4/ARF7). Reduced MP activity greatly diminished shoot regeneration, and partially diminished callusogenesis and root formation. LOF in NPH4 strongly decreased callusogenesis, and mildly decreased shoot and root regeneration in particular categories of explants. By contrast, organogenesis responses were strongly increased in aerial explants carrying the GOF transgene dMP. Thus, both MP and NPH4 seem to act as positive regulators of certain organogenesis processes and the GOF dMP transgene may be of interest for stimulating organogenesis in plant species with poor regeneration properties. Also, organogenesis in vitro may reveal unknown developmental ARF functions.

L'auxine est une hormone végétale qui coordonne plusieurs processus de développement des plantes à travers la régulation d'un ensemble spécifique de gènes. Les Auxin Response Factors (ARF) sont des régulateurs transcriptionnels qui modulent l'expression de gènes de réponse à l’auxine. Des données récentes montrent que les membres de la famille des ARF sont impliqués dans la régulation du développement des fruits de la nouaison à la maturation. L'objectif principal de la thèse est d’étudier la part qui revient aux ARF dans le contrôle du développement et de la maturation des fruits et d’en comprendre les mécanismes d’action. L’analyse des données d’expression disponibles dans les bases de données a révélé que, parmi tous les ARF de tomates, SlARF2 affiche le plu haut niveau d'expression dans le fruit avec un profil distinctif d’expression associé à la maturation. Nous avons alors entrepris la caractérisation fonctionnelle de SlARF2 afin d’explorer son rôle dans le développement et la maturation des fruits. Deux paralogues, SlARF2A et SlARF2B, ont été identifiés dans le génome de la tomate. Nous avons montré que l’expression de SlARF2A dans le fruit est régulée par l'éthylène tandis que celle de SlARF2B est induite par l'auxine. La sous-expression de SlARF2A, comme celle de SlARF2B, entraine un retard de maturation alors que l’inhibition simultanée des deux paralogues conduit à une inhibition plus sévère de la maturation suggérant une redondance fonctionnelle entre les deux paralogues lors de la maturation des fruits. Les fruits présentant une sous-expression des gènes SlARF2 produisent de faibles quantités d'éthylène, montrent une faible accumulation de pigments et une plus grande fermeté. Le traitement avec de l'éthylène exogène ne peut pas inverser les phénotypes de défaut de maturation suggérant que SlARF2 pourrait agir en aval de la voie de signalisation de l'éthylène. L'expression des gènes clés de biosynthèse et de signalisation de l'éthylène est fortement perturbée dans les lignées sous-exprimant SlARF2 et les gènes majeurs qui contrôlent le processus de maturation (RIN, CNR, NOR, TAGL1) sont sensiblement sous-régulés. Les données suggèrent que SlARF2 est essentiel pour la maturation des fruits et qu’il pourrait agir au croisement des voies de signalisation de l'auxine et de l'éthylène. Dans le but de mieux comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels les ARF régulent l'expression des gènes de réponse à l'auxine, nous avons étudié l'interaction des SlARFs avec des partenaires protéiques ciblés, principalement les co-répresseurs de type Aux/IAA et Topless (TPL) décrits comme les acteurs clés dans la répression des gènes dépendant de la signalisation auxinique. Une fois les gènes codant pour les membres de la famille TPL de tomate isolés, une approche double hybride dans la levure a permis d’établir des cartes exhaustives d'interactions protéine-protéine entre les membres des ARFs et des Aux/IAA d’une part et les ARFs et les TPL d’autre part. L'étude a révélé que les Aux/IAA interagissent préférentiellement avec les SlARF activateurs et qu’à l’inverse les Sl-TPL interagissent uniquement avec les SlARF répresseurs. Les données favorisent l'hypothèse que les ARF activateurs recrutent les Sl-TPL via leur interaction avec les Aux/IAA, tandis que les ARF répresseurs peuvent interagir directement avec les Sl-TPL. Les études d’interactions ont permis également d’identifier de nouveaux partenaires comme les protéines VRN5 et LHP1, composantes des complexes Polycomb PRC impliqués dans la repression par voie épigénétique de la transcription par modification de l'état de méthylation des histones. Au total, le travail de thèse apporte un nouvel éclairage sur le rôle et les mécanismes d'action des ARF et identifie SlARF2 comme un nouvel élément du réseau de régulation contrôlant le processus de maturation des fruits chez la tomate. / The plant hormone auxin coordinates plant development through the regulation of a specific set of auxin-regulated genes and Auxin Response Factors (ARFs) are transcriptional regulators modulating the expression of auxin-response genes. Recent data demonstrated that members of this gene family are able to regulate fruit set and fruit ripening. ARFs are known to act in concert with Aux/IAA to control auxin-dependent transcriptional activity of target genes. However, little is known about other partners of ARFs. The main objective of the thesis research project was to gain more insight on the involvement of ARFs in fruit development and ripening and to uncover their interaction with other protein partners beside Aux/IAAs. Mining the tomato expression databases publicly available revealed that among all tomato ARFs, SlARF2 displays the highest expression levels in fruit with a marked ripening-associated pattern of expression. This prompted us to uncover the physiological significance of SlARF2 and in particular to investigate its role in fruit development and ripening. Two paralogs, SlARF2A and SlARF2B, were identified in the tomato genome and transactivation assay in a single cell system revealed that the two SlARF2 proteins are nuclear localized and act as repressors of auxin-responsive genes. In fruit tissues, SlARF2A is ethylene-regulated while SlARF2B is auxin-induced. Knock-down of SlARF2A or SlARF2B results in altered ripening with spiky fruit phenotype, whereas simultaneous down-regulation of SlARF2A and SlARF2B leads to more severe ripening inhibition suggesting a functional redundancy among the two SlARF2 paralogs during fruit ripening. Double knock-down fruits produce less climacteric ethylene and show delayed pigment accumulation and higher firmness. Exogenous ethylene treatment cannot reverse the ripening defect phenotypes suggesting that SlARF2 may act downstream of ethylene signaling. The expression of key ethylene biosynthesis and signaling genes is dramatically disturbed in SlARF2 down-regulated fruit and major regulators of the ripening process, like RIN, CNR, NOR, TAGL1, are under-expressed. The data support the notion that SlARF2 is instrumental to fruit ripening and may act at the crossroads of auxin and ethylene signaling. Altogether, while ethylene is known as a key hormone of climacteric fruit ripening, the ripening phenotypes associated with SlARF2 down-regulation bring unprecedented evidence supporting the role of auxin in the control of this developmental process. To further extend our knowledge of the molecular mechanism by which ARFs regulate the expression of auxin-responsive genes we sought to investigate interactions SlARF and putative partners, mainly Aux/IAAs and Topless co-reppressors (TPLs) reported to be key players in gene repression dependent on auxin signaling. To this end, genes encoding all members of the tomato TPL family were isolated and using a yeast-two-hybrid approach comprehensive protein-protein interaction maps were constructed. The study revealed that Aux/IAA interact preferentially with activator SlARFs while Sl-TPLs interact only with repressor SlARFs. The data support the hypothesis that activator ARFs recruit Sl-TPLs co-repressors via Aux/IAAs as intermediates, while repressor ARFs can physically interact with Sl-TPLs. Further investigation indicated that SlARFs and Sl-TPLs can interact with polycomb complex PRC1 PRC2 components, VRN5 and LHP1, known to be essential players of epigenetic repression of gene transcription through the modification of histones methylation status. These data establish a potential link between ARFs and epigenetic regulation and thereby open new and original perspectives in understanding the mode of action of ARFs. Altogether, the thesis work provides new insight on the role of ARFs and their underlying action mechanisms, and defines SlARF2 as a new component of the regulatory network controlling the ripening process in tomato.

Les légumineuses sont connues pour leurs capacités à établir une relation symbiotique avec des bactéries du sol fixatrices de l'azote atmosphérique. Cette interaction aboutit à la formation d'un nouvel organe au niveau des racines, la nodosité, au sein duquel le symbiote convertit l'azote atmosphérique (N2) en ammoniac, qui peut être directement consommé par les plantes. A l’intérieur de cette nodosité, la concentration en oxygène (O2) est maintenue à un très faible niveau car la réaction de réduction du N2 par l’enzyme bactérienne nitrogénase est inhibée par des traces d’oxygène. Un mécanisme de perception directe de l'O2 impliquant des membres de la famille des facteurs de transcription « Ethylene Responsive Factors » (ERFs) du groupe VII a récemment été découvert chez Arabidopsis thaliana. Ces facteurs de transcription (FT) possèdent une extrémité N-terminale caractéristique avec un résidu de cystéine à la seconde position. Dans des conditions normales d'O2, les FT sont conduit à la dégradation suivant une voie spécifique du protéasome. En condition de stress hypoxique, les TFs sont stabilisés et peuvent activer l’expression des gènes de réponse à l'hypoxie. Il a été démontré que la présence d’O2 et de NO était nécessaire pour déstabiliser ces protéines, et qu'une réduction de la disponibilité de l'un ou l'autre des gaz est suffisante pour protéger le résidu cystéine N-terminale de l'oxydation. L’objectif de cette thèse a été d'étudier le rôle de la famille ERF-VII dans la perception et l'adaptation au manque d'O2 chez M. truncatula. Des travaux ont aussi été menés pour déterminer l’importance du NO dans le fonctionnement en microoxie de la nodosité. Quatre gènes codant pour des facteurs de transcription de la famille ERF-VII ont été identifiés dans le génome de M. truncatula. La caractérisation de cette famille au niveau transcriptionnel a révélé que seul MtERF-B2.2 était induit par le stress hypoxique et au cours du développement des nodosités. Les trois autres, MtERF-B1.1, MtERF-B1.11 et MtERF-B2.3, sont constitutivement exprimés dans les feuilles, les racines et les nodosités. Pour étudier la stabilité de la protéine MtERF-B2.1, l’orthologue de RAP2.12 principal ERF-VII décrit dans la perception de l’O2 chez Arabidopsis, en fonction de la disponibilité de O2/NO, nous avons réalisé une protéine de fusion entre l’extrémité N-terminale de notre protéine et la protéine rapporteur luciférase. Les résultats obtenus sur des protoplastes d'Arabidopsis montrent l’implication la partie N-terminale de MtERF-B2.1 dans la régulation de la stabilité de la protéine, mais en contradiction avec les résultats obtenus en plantes composites de M. truncatula. La fonction de MtERF-B2.1 et MtERF-B2.11 a également été étudiée dans le cadre de la réponse au stress hypoxique et au cours du processus de nodulation en utilisant une stratégie d'interférence ARN. Des racines transgéniques dérégulées sur l’expression de MtERF-B2.1 et MtERF-B2.11 ont montré un défaut d’activation de plusieurs gènes de réponses à l'hypoxie tels que l’alcool déshydrogénase (ADH1) ou la pyruvate décarboxylase (PDC1). Ces racines transgéniques ARNi-MtERF-B2.1/B2.11 sont également affectées dans l'interaction symbiotique avec une réduction significative de la capacité de nodulation et de l'activité de fixation de l'azote dans les nodules matures. En conclusion, ces travaux révèlent que le mécanisme de détection d'O2 est médié par les ERF-VII dans les nodosités de M. truncatula et que ce mécanisme, associé aux cibles moléculaires régulées en aval, participe au développement de cet organe et au maintien de la capacité de fixatrice de celui-ci. De plus, les résultats indiquent que MtERF-B2.1/B2.11 sont des régulateurs positifs du métabolisme anaérobie et que les gènes associés au cycle hémoglobine-NO sont susceptibles d'activer d'autres voies de génération d'ATP. / Legume crops are known for their capacities to establish a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing soil bacteria. This mutualism culminates in the formation of a new plant organ, the root nodule, in which the symbiont converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia, which can be directly consumed by plants. In nodules, bacterial nitrogenase enzyme is inhibited by traces of oxygen (O2) so different mechanisms maintain this organ at low O2 level. At the same time, nodules need to maintain a high ATP level to support the nitrogenase activity, which is highly energy demanding. Thus, a balance between a tight protection from O2 and an efficient energy production, referred as the “O2 paradox” of N2-fixing legume nodules, has to be reached. In Arabidopsis thaliana, a direct oxygen sensing mechanism has recently been discovered involving members of the ethylene responsive factors (ERFs) group VII. These transcription factors (TFs) possess a characteristic N-terminal amino acid with a cysteine residue at the second position that, under normal O2 conditions, leads to protein degradation following a specific pathway called the N-end rule pathway. Furthermore, it was shown that both O2 and nitric oxide (NO) are required to destabilize the ERFs VII and that a reduction in the availability of either gas is sufficient to stabilize these proteins. Therefore, the goal of this thesis was to investigated the role of ERF-VII family in O2 sensing and adaptation to hypoxia in M. truncatula, model plant for legumes, and to understand how NO interacts with O2 in hypoxic signalization in the microoxic environment that characterizes the nodule. We identified four genes belonging to the ERF-VII TF family in the M. truncatula genome, which present a strong similarity with ERF-VII of Arabidopsis. The characterization of this family at the transcriptional level revealed that only MtERF-B2.2 is up-regulated by hypoxia stress and during nodule development. The three others, MtERF-B1.1, MtERF-B1.11 and MtERF-B2.3 are found constitutively expressed in leaves, roots and nodules. To investigated the protein stability of MtERF-B2.1, the closest orthologous to AtRAP2.12 described as O2-sensors in Arabidopsis, in function of O2/NO availability, we realized a fusion protein with the luciferase reporter protein. Our results on Arabidopsis protoplasts indicated that the N-terminal part of MtERF-B2.1 drives its O2-dependent degradation by the N-end rule pathway. The function of MtERF-B2.1 and MtERF-B2.11 was also investigated both in response to hypoxia stress and during the nodulation process using an RNA interference strategy. Silencing of MtERFB2.1 and MtERF-2.11 showed a significant lower activation of several core hypoxia-responsive genes such as ADH1, PDC1, nsHb1 and AlaAT. These double knock-down transgenic roots were also affected in symbiotic interaction with a significant reduction of the nodulation capacity and nitrogen fixation activity in mature nodules. Overall, the results reveal that O2 sensing mechanism is mediated by ERF-VIIs in M. truncatula roots and nodules and that this mechanism, together with downstream targets, is involved in the organ development and ability to efficiently fix nitrogen. Furthermore, results indicated that MtERF-B2.1/B2.11 are positive regulator of the anaerobic metabolism and the Hb-NO cycle– related genes likely in order to activate alternative ATP generation pathways.

The replacement of fossil carbon sources with green bio-oils promotes the importance of several hundred oxygenated hydrocarbons, which substantially increases the analytical effort in catalysis research. A multilinear regression is performed to correlate retention indices (RIs) and response factors (RFs) with structural properties. The model includes a variety of possible products formed during the hydrodeoxygenation of bio-oils with good accuracy (RRF2 0.921 and RRI2 0.975). The GC parameters are related to the detailed hydrocarbon analysis (DHA) method, which is commonly used for non-oxygenated hydrocarbons. The RIs are determined from a paraffin standard (C5–C15), and the RFs are calculated with ethanol and 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene as internal standards. The method presented here can, therefore, be used together with the DHA method and be expanded further. In addition to the multilinear regression, an increment system has been developed for aromatic oxygenates, which further improves the prediction accuracy of the response factors with respect to the molecular constitution (R2 0.958). Both predictive models are designed exclusively on structural factors to ensure effortless application. All experimental RIs and RFs are determined under identical conditions. Moreover, a folded Plackett–Burman screening design demonstrates the general applicability of the datasets independent of method- or device-specific parameters.