Motor vehicle crashes are the leading cause of unintentional injury-related death among children ages 14 and under and of these children who were fatally injured more that 60 % were not using safety restraints at the time of the collision. Children who are too large for child safety seats are often restrained improperly or not at all. In addition, many children are being shifted from child safety seats to adult safety belts prematurely. For proper protection, children who have outgrown child safety seats require booster seats combined with vehicle lap/shoulder belts. A booster seat raises a child up so that the lap and shoulder belts fit properly. The current research went through a systematic approach, from several perspectives, to develop an effective pamphlet to increase behavioral compliance of purchasing a booster seat. The pamphlet developed throughout these studies had a substantial and positive effect on intention and perceived control as well as a meaningful and substantial impact on actual purchase behavior. In addition, the associated guidelines that were developed allow others to produce effective printed educational materials. This research consisted of five studies described below. Study 1 consisted of 43 subject matter experts who were used to determine pertinent information that should be included in a complete booster seat pamphlet. Nine of the 20 items showed significance and were included in the first iteration of the pamphlet. Study 2 consisted of 5 parents of children who should be in booster seats and were not at the time of the study, evaluated the usability of the first iteration pamphlet. A total of 18 items were changed in the pamphlet and a subsequent second iteration of the pamphlet was developed. Study 3 consisted of 30 parents of children who should be in booster seats and were not at the time of the study, were used to assess the comprehensibility (Cloze test), hazard-risk judgments (carefulness ratings), and understandability (questionnaire) of three booster seat pamphlets. Significance was found for the second iteration pamphlet in both comprehensibility and understandability, but no significance was found in risk perception. Study 4 consisted of 8 human factors graduate students who were used to assess the reading level (SMOG test), instructional design and inclusion of learning principles (BIDS-3 test), and readability (RAINS test) of three booster seat pamphlets. The second iteration pamphlet and two existing industry pamphlets were used in Studies 3 and 4 and significance was found for the second iteration pamphlet in both instructional design and learning principles as well as readability and was the only pamphlet to have a reading level under 8th grade. Subsequent to these studies a third iteration of the new pamphlet was developed. Study 5 consisted of 45 parents of children who should be in booster seats and were not at the time of the study. Three booster seat pamphlets, two from the child passenger safety industry and the third iteration pamphlet were used as treatments (15 participants per group). Effectiveness of the intervention was tested by assessing three variables, intent to purchase (revealed that when intent was high purchase was high), perceived control of purchasing (revealed that when perceived control was high purchase was high), and actual purchase behavior (third iteration pamphlet showed a significantly higher purchase rate than the industry pamphlets). Of the 19 participants who purchased a booster seat, there were 12 (63%) in the third iteration pamphlet group, 2 (11%) in the alternate 1 pamphlet group, and 5 (26%) in the alternate 2 pamphlet group, and 100% of those who purchased, reported that they use them each time their child rides in a vehicle. This research increased our understanding of information design and well as generating general design guidelines for pamphlets. In addition, this research produced a pamphlet for credible sources to use as an education tool for parents who have children who should be in booster seats and are not placed in them when riding in a vehicle. / Ph. D.

The objective of this exploratory research was to investigate the interplay among emotion, risk perception, and situation awareness as potential risk factors within the health care domain. To accomplish this objective, a two-phase study approach was employed. In Phase I, a proof-of-concept testbed of the emotional interface concept, namely Wearable Avatar Risk Display (WARD), was tested as the primary communication medium to explore participants' emotional responses and risk choices under the influence of the validated International Affective Picture System (IAPS). Based on the lessons learned, a limited prototype of WARD was further refined and then implemented in a formative evaluation. The formative evaluation employed two medical students from the Edward Via Virginia College of Osteopathic Medicine (VCOM) to investigate their emotional response, risk perception, and situation awareness using the MicroSim InHospital under the influence of the validated film-based Mood Induction Procedures (MIPs). In Phase II, 32 new medical students from VCOM participated in 2 (intervention) x 2 (film) between-subjects study for addressing three research questions. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed. Results from Phase I indicated the need for MIPs, as well as shed light on the feasibility of employing anthropomorphic computer characters as intervention devices. Participants found anthropomorphic computer characters to be meaningful as virtual assistants in a team environment. The Facial Expression Coding System also indicated that participants experienced high levels of happiness/amusement when a happy and credible anthropomorphic computer character was introduced under angry emotional induction via MIPs. Physiological states results confirmed that participants' heart rate variability was affected significantly after the use of anthropomorphic computer characters, verifying that their utilization was potentially effective. The lessons I learned from the Phase I results led me to refine procedures and training/evaluation techniques, and to introduce anthropomorphic computer characters with minimal intrusiveness during the Phase II study. Findings from Phase II showed that one particular medical item, wiping contaminated spills, was found to be influenced by induced anger. Moreover, mixed support for using anthropomorphic computer characters and text interventions was also found for the medical and general risk perception ratings under induced anger. Sub-constructs within 3-D SART correlated with emotional responses and anthropomorphic computer character intervention. Two additional items, supply of attention and complexity of the situation, were also found to be influenced by anthropomorphic computer character intervention. Content analysis using the Word-Frequency List method resulted in positive responses for both anthropomorphic computer character and text interventions. Using Two-sample t tests, text based interventions led to a higher level of subjective happiness as measured by PANAS-X. Multiple regressions were also conducted and resulted in six equations for predicting the influence of emotion on situation awareness and medical based risk perception. / Ph. D.

Motor vehicle crashes remain a leading cause of death and injury for US children, despite improved crashworthiness of vehicles and effective restraint systems for children of all ages. Children who are too large for child safety seats (a child restraint system for children from birth to 4 years old) are often restrained improperly or not at all. These children should be restrained in a booster seat which is a type of child safety seat designed for children who have out grown their convertible seat and are not large enough to fit properly in an adult seat belt. For this reason, the use and correct use of occupant protection for 4-9 year old children in particular needs to be addressed. For proper restraint, children who have outgrown child safety seats require booster seats used with vehicle lap/shoulder belts. This present study attempted to determine if raising risk perception and/or lowering cost of compliance would influence more parents to purchase booster seats for their children who should be restrained in them. A field study with 128 participants with four treatment groups was conducted to test the following two hypotheses. 1) Informational pamphlets and dollars off coupons will reduce compliance cost and thereby induce the purchase of booster seats, 2) informational pamphlets will increase risk perception. Of the 128 participants, 37 (from various treatment groups) purchased booster seats, and 100% of those who purchased, reported that they use them each time their child rides in a vehicle. Unlike previous studies on risk perception of consumers, this study went beyond post measures of attitude change and assessed actual purchase behavior through self-reports from the participants. In so doing, this study was able to draw inferences about the effects of the interventions on purchase behavior. The analyses indicated that intervention of any kind was more effective than no intervention in influencing the purchase of a booster seat. Thus, the intervention encouraged adoption of a safety product. This study hopes to achieve a change in people's perception of booster seats regarding the safety of children in vehicles. In addition, possibly influencing future legislation regarding child passenger safety. / Master of Science

People tend to maintain certain positive illusions about themselves and their futures that may be adaptive in buffering their self-esteem and feelings of efficacy from the effects of negative or threatening feedback. The illusion of unique invulnerability is the expectation that others will be the victims of misfortune and negative events more so than oneself. One possible implication of holding this belief is that, if a false sense of security is fostered, actual vulnerability to experiencing negative events that one has control over (for example, contracting lung cancer from smoking) might be increased if self-protective behaviors are decreased. The purpose of this study was to determine 1) what personality characteristics are related to this belief in unique invulnerability, 2) whether unique invulnerability is related to assumption of risk in behavior, 3) how accurately people assess the riskiness of their own behavior, and 4) how beliefs in unique invulnerability change over time and experience with risk. Subjects were 164 male and female Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) cadets, ages 17-20, engaged in rappelling down a tall structure, an inherently risky activity. A measure of unique invulnerability and several personality measures were administered before rappelling, and risk-relevant behavior was observed during rappelling. Personal safety ratings were obtained and the invulnerability measure was readministered after rappelling. Results indicated that unique invulnerability was positively correlated with self-esteem (p<.004). For subjects’ first rappels, unique invulnerability was negatively related to number of bounds to descend a 40-foot tower (p<.01), such that as invulnerability increased, number of bounds decreased. Although assumption of risk was operationally defined as taking fewer bounds, further analyses indicated that number of bounds might be more a reflection of physical competence than of riskiness. This finding suggested that greater beliefs in invulnerability were related to competent rappelling performance, while lesser beliefs in invulnerability were related to ultra-conservative behavior. Self-reports of safety were positively related to number of bounds for first rappels off a 40-foot tower (p<.01), and were related to instructor ratings of jump competence and safety for first and second rappels off a 40-foot tower (ps<.05). This suggests that as a number of bounds became more conservative, and as instructor ratings improved, self-reports of safety increased. Finally, beliefs in unique invulnerability decreased after rappelling, both for subjects who rappelled (p<.001), and for control subjects who observed but did not rappel (p<.05). Conclusions are that self-esteem is an important component of the illusion of unique invulnerability, that invulnerability is related to competent performance while engaging in risky activities like rappelling, that invulnerability is subject to change over time and experience, and that subjects can fairly accurately assess the objective safety of their behavior. Implications for theory and research on unique invulnerability are discussed, as well as limitations and future directions. / Master of Science

The increase in globalization and trade among larger industrialized countries and smaller developing countries has increased the awareness and need to better communicate risk and hazard information for consumer and manufacturing products. The purpose of this research was to examine cultural differences associated with risk communication and risk perception. The research observed cultural differences in hazard perception associated with color, signal words, and symbols among industry workers from the United States of America and the Republic of Ghana. The research also examined the perception of risk associated with general everyday statements as well as locus of control. A total of 96 industry workers from both the USA and the Republic of Ghana participated in this study (USA = 46, Ghana = 50). Four different hypotheses were tested in this research. The hypotheses that were tested focused on risk perception (21 items) and locus of control (9 items), hazard perception and attention-getting for 6 symbols (carefulness, severity of injury implied, and understanding were also measured for the symbols) and 16 hazard signs. A pair wise comparison was used in one portion of the study in which 120 different signal word and color combination hazard signs were used. A nine-point Likert-type scale was used to evaluate the risk perception items. A four point Likert-type scale was used to measure locus of control. The results from the study concluded that there are significant differences between the two cultures and the way individuals perceive risk, perceive hazards associated symbols, evaluate hazard signs, and locus of control. A total risk perception score as well as individual risk perception scores were calculated for the 21 items using an independent sample t-test. The results for the total risk perception revealed significant differences between the two groups (t (84) = 6.43, p < .0001) with the participants from the USA having an overall higher risk perception with the mean equaling 6.39 and the participants from Ghana equaling 5.28. Significant findings such as those from the risk perception portion of this study as well as other significant findings in this study will contribute to suggested guidelines and implications for safety training in a global work environment. Such guidelines and implications include using the SKULL symbol instead of the MR YUCK symbol to communicate hazard in Ghana and suggesting that the BOLT and ELECTRIC SHOCK symbol can be used interchangeably. / Master of Science

Objective: This study explored the relationship of risk perception with change in health behaviors and social cognitive theory (SCT) constructs. Additionally, this study evaluated the feasibility, utility, and practice of self blood pressure monitoring (SBPM). Design: Adults with prehypertension, ages 45-62 (N = 23) completed the Risk Perception Survey for Developing Hypertension (RPS-DH) and Health Belief Survey (HBS) during the screening portion of Dash-2-Wellness (D2W), a lifestyle modification intervention. Participants were randomized into one of two treatment groups, Dash-2-Wellness Plus (D2W Plus) or Dash-2-Wellness Only (D2W Only). Both groups were given dietary counseling regarding the DASH diet and encouraged to monitor their physical activity using a pedometer. The D2W Plus group also engaged in SBPM. Results: Moderate correlations were found between composite risk perception and change in step count (r = -.47, p = .03), and change in systolic blood pressure (r = .42, p = .04). Baseline risk perception was not related to SCT variables, with few exceptions. High levels of compliance (M = 90.36%, SD = 12.62) were reported for SBPM. Conclusions: Findings indicate that risk perception may play a limited role in motivating change in continuous health behaviors, particularly in asymptomatic conditions. Additionally, the nature of the risk reduction offered by the behavior may also influence its association with risk perception as a motivator for change. Findings suggest that SBPM is a feasible and useful behavior. Reports regarding positive affect and ease of machine use in regards to this behavior may increase the likelihood of regular compliance. / Master of Science

Violence continues to shape Swedish society, leading to vulnerability and concern, especially affecting young people, with injuries, anxiety, and life-limiting aspects as consequences. Based on this issue, the study aims to interdisciplinarily examine exposure to violence, risk perception regarding violence, and trust, with a specific focus on what influences trust in the Police. This can hopefully contribute to a deeper understanding of the area and hopefully lead to more effective trust- and security building police work. The study applies a mixed-method approach, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative semi-structured interviews, with the data material analyzed through cross-tabulation analysis and qualitative content analysis. The total data set consists of 766 respondents (survey) and 7 informants (interviews). The results generally suggest that exposure is relatively frequent, both regarding physical- and sexual violence, with a noteworthy high exposure to physical violence against women. Regarding risk perception the concern is widespread, where primarily the concern for the vulnerability of other individuals is prominent. There is also a notable relationship between actual exposure to violence and higher anxiety. Regarding trust in the Police, it is generally high, where many feel a considerable degree of trust in the work of the Police. Overall, the study indicates several associations and factors that influence exposure, risk perception, and trust to varying degrees. The study's most prominent findings applies to trust, where both actual exposure to violence and high anxiety tend to negatively affect trust. Furthermore, the police's treatment, engagement, and effectiveness are considered additional factors that influence trust. With regard to this, the study's results suggest that minor negative events can affect young people's trust, making police treatment significant for trust- and security building work and for maintaining a high level of trust.

This research sought to better understand the antecedents of consumers' perceptions of risk (health and safety risks specifically), and the relationship between the perceived risk of an option, and judgments about the acceptability of that option. The specific objective of the proposed research was to build a model of risk perception and risky option acceptability for hazardous products and activities (i.e., that present downside risks to a consumer's health and safety), using several variables that have been postulated to be important, using a multiple linear regression model building approach. One goal was to integrate the study of perceived risk in consumer behavior with various concepts and models of risk perception and risk acceptability from the behavioral decision sciences, an integration suggested previously by Jacoby (1981). Emphasis was placed on conceptual and methodological issues that confront researchers from either domain that need to be resolved if risk is to occupy a central place in marketing theory. Two of the variables included in the study of the determinants of perceived risk comprise the conceptual definition of perceived risk used in this research: probability of a negative outcome, and severity of a negative outcome. Specifically, both were hypothesized to be positively correlated with perceptions of risk. Six additional variables were also examined as determinants of perceived risk. Given the definition of risk used in this research, these variables relate to either or both of the constructs probability and severity, and implicitly were also hypothesized to be significant determinants of risk perception. The variable examined that relates to probability exclusively was controllability. Specifically, a negative relationship was hypothesized between the perceived risk of a product and the controllability of the negative outcome associated with that product. Variables which relate to severity exclusively include reversibility, dreadedness, and immediacy. Specifically, judgments of negative consequences as immediate, dreaded, and irreversible were hypothesized to be positively correlated with perceptions of risk. Finally, two variables that relate to both probability and severity included availability and catastrophic potential. Specifically, there should be a positive relationship between the perceived risk of a product and the availability and catastrophic potential of the negative outcome associated with that product. All hypotheses with the exception of those relating to immediacy were supported; the hypotheses relating confidence to acceptability was only partially supported. All variables with the exception of immediacy were concluded to belong in a comprehensive model of perceived risk and option acceptability. / Ph. D.

This project deals with exploring 1) travel-related health risk perception, and 2) actions taken to mitigate that health risk. Ordered logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with the perceived risk of contracting influenza at work, school, daycare, stores, restaurants, libraries, hospitals, doctor’s offices, public transportation, and family or friends’ homes. Based on the models, factors influencing risk perception of contracting influenza in public places for discretionary activities (stores, restaurants, and libraries) are consistent but differ from models of discretionary social visits to someone’s home. Mandatory activities (work, school, daycare) seem to have a few unique factors (e.g., age, gender, work exposure), as do different types of health-related visits (hospitals, doctors’ offices). Across all of the models, recent experience with the virus, of either an individual or a household member, was the most consistent set of factors increasing risk perception. Using such factors in examining transportation implications will require tracking virus outbreaks for use in conjunction with other factors. Subsequently, social-health risk mitigation strategies were studied with the objective of understanding how risk perception influences an individual’s protective behavior. For this objective, this study analyzes travel-actions associated with two scenarios during an outbreak of influenza: 1) A sick person avoiding spreading the disease and 2) A healthy person avoiding getting in contact with the disease. Ordered logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with mitigation behavior in the first scenario: visiting a doctor’s office, avoiding public places, avoiding public transit, staying at home; and in the second scenario: avoiding public places, avoiding public transit, staying at home. Based on the models for Scenario 1, the factors affecting the decision of avoiding public places, avoiding public transit, and staying at home were fairly consistent but differ for visiting a doctor’s office. However, Scenario 2 models were consistent with their counterpart mitigation models in Scenario 1 except for two factors: gender and household characteristics. Across all the models from Scenario 1, gender was the most significant factor, and for Scenario 2, the most significant factor was the ratio of household income to the household size. / Master of Science / Transmission of a communicable disease depends on the social interactions of the members of society. Generally, individuals associate their health-protection behavior to the perception of health risk associated with that activity. Hence, individuals with high health-risk perception are likely to participate in a protective action to reduce the threat of getting infected with influenza. However, in some cases, even if a high health risk is perceived, an individual might have a decreased likelihood to take actions to mitigate that risk. This behavior could be associated with their inability to carry out recommendations, such as vaccination (due to the cost of vaccination) or adopting protective behaviors such as social isolation (switching from public transit to personal vehicle due to the associated cost). This behavior, of either adopting or rejecting protective action, can be explained by protection motivation theory. This theory explains the individual’s perception of the severity of an event (i.e., threat appraisal), and individual’s expectancy of carrying out recommendations (risk mitigation strategies) to reduce threat (i.e., coping appraisal). Both, health risk perception and risk-mitigation strategies are studied for changes in travel decisions.

Yes / Purpose Refractive blur is associated with decreased hazard perception and impairments in driving performance, but little is known about why people who have spectacles to correct their distance vision drive with uncorrected vision. Methods We conducted six focus groups. Participants were 30 drivers (mean age 45) who reported having driven uncorrected at least twice in the past six months despite having spectacles to correct their distance vision. Focus groups were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically. Results We identified three themes. 1. Responsibility: participants did not feel obliged to drive with optimal vision and believed that others have a responsibility to ensure drivers maintain clear vision. 2. Safe Enough: participants felt safe to drive uncorrected, did not believe they need to wear spectacles to see sufficiently clearly and that they would know if their uncorrected eyesight fails to meet minimum standards. 3. Situations: participants discussed how they would drive uncorrected for short and familiar journeys, when they feel alert, in daylight and in good weather. Conclusions Beliefs about the importance of driving with clear vision compete with the benefits of not wearing spectacles. Eyecare professionals should provide more direct advice to patients regarding the need to wear their visual correction for driving.