Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-12T20:12:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PGEF14MA047.pdf: 93789 bytes, checksum: 5a7cdb0b1f0327506fa6f01fd57c89cb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-05-30 / Among the economically important species of eucalyptus for southern Brazil, the most suitable are Eucalyptus benthamii and Eucalyptus dunnii, due to its tolerance to low temperatures. However, there is little information about the nutritional requirements and studies showing aspects involving nutrition versus the development of these species. Coupled with the high demand for use of fertilizers and, in order to obtain substantial productivity gains for most of eucalyptus forests located in the South of Brazil soils, it is necessary to determine suitable doses depending of the soil type and the genetic material. This study aimed to evaluate the initial response of Eucalyptus benthamii and Eucalyptus dunnii to different doses of phosphorus fertilization and liming in the study region. There were specific objectives, as: to evaluate the initial growth of the plants of Eucalyptus benthamii and Eucalyptus dunnii, based on the dendrometric variables height and crown diameter; evaluate and interpret the effect of different doses of rock phosphate (RF), mixed mineral fertilizer (MF) and limestone in the initial growth of these species. Thus, it was conducted a field experiment, located in the city of Rio Negrinho - SC, in the period November 2012 to November 2013. The experimental design was a randomized block design with three replications, conducted in three 2 x 4 factorial schemes. Considering the A factor constituted by two species (Eucalyptus benthamii and Eucalyptus dunnii) and the B factor: a) four levels of RF (0, 400, 600 and 800 kg ha-1 in the form of reactive Gafsa RF); b) four doses of MF (0, 150, 200 and 250 kg ha-1 of NPK 6-30-6 formulation); c) four liming levels (0, 3.5, 6 and 10 t ha-1 in the form of dolomitic lime). The plots had 270 m² of area, with 45 plants in each. Total height measures and diameter of the tree canopy to 330 days after planting were performed. The results showed that the phosphate fertilizer (RF and MFM) and liming increased growth in height and crown diameter of Eucalyptus benthamii and Eucalyptus dunnii plants during the first 11 months of grow. The growth response of Eucalyptus benthamii was higher than Eucalyptus dunnii, in all evaluated factorial schemes. The lowest dose of RF was effective for the growth of Eucalyptus benthamii and obtained slightly higher growth for Eucalyptus dunnii when associated with dose of 6 t ha-1 of lime and, mainly, to 10 t ha-1 of lime. The higher dose of MF was effective on the Eucalyptus benthamii growth and slightly higher for Eucalyptus dunnii, but only when combined with a dose of 10 t ha-1 of lime. The lower dose of lime had satisfactory growth for Eucalyptus dunnii, while the higher dose of lime was effective in the growth of Eucalyptus benthamii, when associated with a dose of 400 kg ha-1 RF, a condition that was found slightly higher than results of the studied dendrometric parameters / Entre as espécies de eucalipto economicamente importantes para a Região Sul do Brasil, as mais indicadas são Eucalyptus benthamii e Eucalyptus dunnii, devido às suas tolerâncias às baixas temperaturas. No entanto, são escassas as informações sobre as exigências nutricionais e estudos que apresentem aspectos que envolvam a nutrição versus o desenvolvimento dessas espécies. Aliado a elevada demanda por utilização de fertilizantes e corretivos para que se obtenham ganhos substanciais de produtividade para grande maioria das florestas de eucaliptos situados nos solos do Sul do Brasil, é necessário determinar doses adequadas em função do tipo de solo e do material genético. O trabalho objetivou avaliar a resposta inicial de Eucalyptus benthamii e Eucalyptus dunnii a diferentes doses de adubação fosfatada e calagem na região do Planalto Norte Catarinense. Tendo como objetivos específicos: avaliar o crescimento inicial das plantas de Eucalyptus benthamii e Eucalyptus dunnii, a partir das variáveis dendrométricas altura e diâmetro de copa; avaliar e interpretar o efeito de diferentes doses de fosfato natural (FN), fertilizante mineral misto (FM) e calcário no crescimento inicial dessas espécies. Nesse sentido, foi conduzido experimento a campo, localizado no Município de Rio Negrinho SC, no período de novembro de 2012 a novembro de 2013. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso com três repetições, conduzido em três esquemas fatoriais 2 x 4. Sendo fator A constituído por duas espécies (Eucalyptus benthamii e Eucalyptus dunnii) e o fator B por: a) quatro doses de FN (0, 400, 600 e 800 kg ha-1 na forma de FN reativo de Gafsa); b) quatro doses de FM (0, 150, 200 e 250 kg ha-1 da formulação 6-30-6 de NPK); e c) quatro doses de calcário (0, 3,5, 6 e 10 t ha-1 na forma de calcário dolomítico). As parcelas possuíam 270 m² de área útil, apresentando 45 plantas em cada. Foram realizadas medidas de altura total e diâmetro de copa das árvores aos 330 dias após plantio. Os resultados mostraram que a adubação fosfatada (FN e FM) e a calagem aumentaram o crescimento em altura e diâmetro de copa das plantas de Eucalyptus benthamii e Eucalyptus dunnii durante os primeiros 11 meses de cultivo. A resposta de crescimento do Eucalyptus benthamii foi superior em relação ao Eucalyptus dunnii, em todos os esquemas fatorais avaliados. A menor dose de FN foi efetiva no crescimento de Eucalyptus benthamii e obteve crescimento ligeiramente superior para Eucalyptus dunnii, quando associada à dose de 6 t ha-1 de calcário e, principalmente, à 10 t ha-1 de calcário. A maior dose de FM foi efetiva no crescimento de Eucalyptus benthamii e ligeiramente superior para Eucalyptus dunnii, porém, somente quando associada à dose de 10 t ha-1 de calcário. A menor dose de calcário obteve crescimento satisfatório para Eucalyptus dunnii, enquanto a maior dose de calcário foi efetiva no crescimento de Eucalyptus benthamii, quando associada à dose de 400 kg ha-1 de FN, condição que foi constatada resultados ligeiramente superiores dos parâmetros dendrométricos estudados

O fósforo é um dos nutrientes que mais limita o crescimento das plantas, contudo existem controvérsias sobre a resposta das soqueiras de cana-açúcar à adubação fosfatada. Foram conduzidos dois experimentos com o objetivo de compreender a dinâmica do fósforo no solo sob cultivo de cana-de-açúcar RB85 5536, com ênfase na adubação de soqueira, e a fim de estabelecer fontes de fósforo adequadas para este sistema. Um dos experimentos visou compreender as reações ao redor de grânulos de fertilizantes fosfatados, assim como observar a difusão de P a partir destes grânulos. O segundo experimento, objetivou entender a dinâmica do P em solo sob soqueira adubada com fontes de fósforo. Os resultados deste estudo mostram diferenças entre os adubos com respeito à labilidade e à mobilidade de P no solo. A mobilidade foi encontrada intimamente relacionada com o pH do solo, teores de argila e CaCO3 e reações iniciais de precipitação, sendo esta última predominante em torno do grânulo. A taxa à qual P se moveu a partir do grânulo para o solo foi intimamente relacionada com o teor de argila do solo, assim, quanto menor o teor de argila maior é a distância percorrida pelo ânion fosfato. A maior mobilidade P foi encontrada com uso das fontes a base de fosfato monoamônico. Em contraste, os grânulos de Estruvita permaneceram intactos e mostrou-se um P de menor mobilidade. Por meio de estudo de Estruvita sequencial foi investigado a dinâmica do adubo P após mover-se a partir do grânulo para o solo. Em geral, mais de 50% do fertilizante P foi recuperado como P lábil nos primeiros 13,5 mm a partir do local de colocação dos fertilizantes. O revestimento de fosfato monoamônico com enxofre elementar ou ácido húmico não aumentou a labilidade ou a mobilidade a partir desse fertilizante. Reações de protonação e desprotonação de fosfato parecem afetar o pH do solo em torno dos grânulos. As reações envolvendo o N em algumas fontes provaram ser mais atuantes na alteração do pH. Em solo sob cultivo de cana-de-açúcar, as frações de P no solo mais alteradas pela adubação fosfatada foram a de P extraído com resina trocadora de ânions e P extraível com NaOH 0,1 mol L-1, fração lábil e moderadamente lábil, respectivamente. Contudo, esses efeitos foram evidenciados somente após a reaplicação dos fertilizantes fosfatados na segunda safra avaliada, em que também foi evidenciado sinergismo entre essas frações de P. Embora algumas fontes tenham promovido aumento no teor de P disponível no solo, nem segunda ou terceira soqueira de cana-de-açúcar, apresentaram influencia à adubação fosfatada, mesmo com a reaplicação dos fertilizantes na terceira soqueira. / Among the nutrients, phosphorus is one of those who limit plant growth, however there are controversies about the response from the phosphate fertilization. Thus, in order to understand the dynamics of phosphorus in soil under cultivation of sugarcane\'s ratoon, and also establish more suitable phosphorus sources for that system, two experiments were carried out. The first one, aiming to understand reactions around of the granules of phosphate fertilizers as well as to observe P diffusion. And another experiment aiming understands the dynamics of P in soil under ratoon fertilized with phosphorus sources. The results of this study show differences between fertilizers with respect to lability and mobility of P in the soil. P mobility was found closely related to soil pH, clay and CaCO3 precipitation and initial reactions, the latter in turn are prevalent around the granules. The rate at which P moves from the pellet was closely related to the clay content. The distance traveled decreases as the increase of clay content. The greater P mobility was found where monoammonium phosphates were applied base. In contrast, Struvite granules remain intact and showed lower mobility. A sequential fractionation study was used to investigate the P-fertilizer behavior after moving outward of granules. Overall, more than 50% of P fertilizer was recovered labile P as the first 13,5 mm from fertilizer placement. e monoammonium phosphate coating with elemental sulfur and humic acid, did not improve lability or mobility from that fertilizer. Reactions of phosphate protonation and deprotonation seems to affect the soil pH around the granules. However, reactions involving N fertilizer proved more remarkable. In soil under sugarcane cultivation, the P extracted with anion exchange resin and e P extracted with 0.1 M NaOH were the P fractions most affected by phosphorus fertilization were, labile and moderately labile fractions, respectively. However, these effects were evident only after the reapplication of fertilizers on the second assessed ratoon. In this experiment synergism between these fractions P was also observed. Although some sources increased available P in soil, nor second neither third ratoon of sugarcane, RB85 5536, responded to fertilization, even with the fertilizers reapplication in the third ratoon.

O fósforo é um dos nutrientes que mais limita o crescimento das plantas, contudo existem controvérsias sobre a resposta das soqueiras de cana-açúcar à adubação fosfatada. Foram conduzidos dois experimentos com o objetivo de compreender a dinâmica do fósforo no solo sob cultivo de cana-de-açúcar RB85 5536, com ênfase na adubação de soqueira, e a fim de estabelecer fontes de fósforo adequadas para este sistema. Um dos experimentos visou compreender as reações ao redor de grânulos de fertilizantes fosfatados, assim como observar a difusão de P a partir destes grânulos. O segundo experimento, objetivou entender a dinâmica do P em solo sob soqueira adubada com fontes de fósforo. Os resultados deste estudo mostram diferenças entre os adubos com respeito à labilidade e à mobilidade de P no solo. A mobilidade foi encontrada intimamente relacionada com o pH do solo, teores de argila e CaCO3 e reações iniciais de precipitação, sendo esta última predominante em torno do grânulo. A taxa à qual P se moveu a partir do grânulo para o solo foi intimamente relacionada com o teor de argila do solo, assim, quanto menor o teor de argila maior é a distância percorrida pelo ânion fosfato. A maior mobilidade P foi encontrada com uso das fontes a base de fosfato monoamônico. Em contraste, os grânulos de Estruvita permaneceram intactos e mostrou-se um P de menor mobilidade. Por meio de estudo de Estruvita sequencial foi investigado a dinâmica do adubo P após mover-se a partir do grânulo para o solo. Em geral, mais de 50% do fertilizante P foi recuperado como P lábil nos primeiros 13,5 mm a partir do local de colocação dos fertilizantes. O revestimento de fosfato monoamônico com enxofre elementar ou ácido húmico não aumentou a labilidade ou a mobilidade a partir desse fertilizante. Reações de protonação e desprotonação de fosfato parecem afetar o pH do solo em torno dos grânulos. As reações envolvendo o N em algumas fontes provaram ser mais atuantes na alteração do pH. Em solo sob cultivo de cana-de-açúcar, as frações de P no solo mais alteradas pela adubação fosfatada foram a de P extraído com resina trocadora de ânions e P extraível com NaOH 0,1 mol L-1, fração lábil e moderadamente lábil, respectivamente. Contudo, esses efeitos foram evidenciados somente após a reaplicação dos fertilizantes fosfatados na segunda safra avaliada, em que também foi evidenciado sinergismo entre essas frações de P. Embora algumas fontes tenham promovido aumento no teor de P disponível no solo, nem segunda ou terceira soqueira de cana-de-açúcar, apresentaram influencia à adubação fosfatada, mesmo com a reaplicação dos fertilizantes na terceira soqueira. / Among the nutrients, phosphorus is one of those who limit plant growth, however there are controversies about the response from the phosphate fertilization. Thus, in order to understand the dynamics of phosphorus in soil under cultivation of sugarcane\'s ratoon, and also establish more suitable phosphorus sources for that system, two experiments were carried out. The first one, aiming to understand reactions around of the granules of phosphate fertilizers as well as to observe P diffusion. And another experiment aiming understands the dynamics of P in soil under ratoon fertilized with phosphorus sources. The results of this study show differences between fertilizers with respect to lability and mobility of P in the soil. P mobility was found closely related to soil pH, clay and CaCO3 precipitation and initial reactions, the latter in turn are prevalent around the granules. The rate at which P moves from the pellet was closely related to the clay content. The distance traveled decreases as the increase of clay content. The greater P mobility was found where monoammonium phosphates were applied base. In contrast, Struvite granules remain intact and showed lower mobility. A sequential fractionation study was used to investigate the P-fertilizer behavior after moving outward of granules. Overall, more than 50% of P fertilizer was recovered labile P as the first 13,5 mm from fertilizer placement. e monoammonium phosphate coating with elemental sulfur and humic acid, did not improve lability or mobility from that fertilizer. Reactions of phosphate protonation and deprotonation seems to affect the soil pH around the granules. However, reactions involving N fertilizer proved more remarkable. In soil under sugarcane cultivation, the P extracted with anion exchange resin and e P extracted with 0.1 M NaOH were the P fractions most affected by phosphorus fertilization were, labile and moderately labile fractions, respectively. However, these effects were evident only after the reapplication of fertilizers on the second assessed ratoon. In this experiment synergism between these fractions P was also observed. Although some sources increased available P in soil, nor second neither third ratoon of sugarcane, RB85 5536, responded to fertilization, even with the fertilizers reapplication in the third ratoon.

Mangabeira (Hancornia speciosa) fruit is native to Brazil, and its fruit - mangaba - is widely used in agribusiness juices and ice creams. Given the growing demand for its fruit becomes imperative to cultivation of this species. Thus, it is necessary to develop farming technologies, which includes studies on fertilization. The work aimed to study the response to fertilization mangabeira planting with different sources and levels of phosphorus in soil type PSAMENT. The experiment was carried out in green- EMBRAPA, Aracaju, Sergipe. We studied two phosphorus sources (triple super phosphate and Gafsa rock phosphate) and five doses (0, 0.56, 1.12, 2.24 and 4.48 g P2O5 dm3). Observed photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration and internal CO 2, besides the production of dry matter and phosphorus content and accumulation in roots and shoots. It was concluded that the provision of high doses of phosphorus and high in acidity and concentration of aluminum substrate provided by the source superphosphate brought damage to plant development. The Gafsa rock phosphate was more efficient doque triple superphosphate as source of phosphorus for speciosa. / A mangabeira (Hancornia speciosa Gomes) é frutífera nativa do Brasil, e seu fruto - mangaba - é muito utilizado na agroindústria de sucos e sorvetes. Tendo em vista a crescente demanda por seus frutos torna-se imperativa a necessidade de cultivo desta espécie. Para tanto, faz-se necessário o desenvolvimento de tecnologias de cultivo, o que inclui estudos relativos à adubação. O trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a resposta da mangabeira à adubação de plantio com diferentes fontes e doses de fósforo em solos do tipo Neossolo Quartzarênico. O experimento foi desenvolvido em casa-devegetação da EMBRAPA, em Aracaju, Sergipe. Estudou-se duas fontes de fósforo (super fosfato triplo e fosfato natural de Gafsa) e cinco doses (0; 0,56; 1,12; 2,24 e 4,48g de P2O5 dm3). Observou-se fotossíntese, condutância estomática, transpiração e CO2 interno, além da produção de massa seca e teor e acúmulo de fósforo no sistema radicular e na parte aérea. Concluiu-se que a disponibilização de doses excessivas de fósforo e a elevação da acidez e dos teores de alumínio do substrato, proporcionados pela fonte superfosfato triplo trouxeram prejuízos ao desenvolvimento das plantas. O fosfato natural de Gafsa foi mais eficiente doque o superfosfato triplo, como fonte de fósforo para a mangabeira.

Ph.d.-afhandling. Den Kongelige Veterinær- og Landbohøjskole, 2002. / Haves også i trykt udg.

Phosphate application is still rarely used in sugarcane and can be done with phosphorus fertilizers of long residual period. This study evaluated the effect of phosphate fertilizers applied in the whole area before planting on sugarcane yield and technological quality. The study was done at Jalles Machado sugar-mill, in Goianésia-GO, during three growing seasons. The treatments consisted of five different phosphorus sources, soluble and insoluble, applied in the rate equivalent to 300 kg ha-1 P2O5. The fertilizers used were: triple superphosphate, mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP), Arad phosphate rock, Itafós phosphate rock and magnesium thermophosphate. The effects of these fertilizers were evaluated by analysis of plant height (height from ground to TVD), leaf phosphorus content, sugarcane yield in cane plant, first ratoon and second ratoon, by technology parameters in ratoon, by sugar produced and by agronomic efficiency. Application of magnesium thermophosphate and triple superphosphate resulted in greater plant cane height. Leaf concentrations of phosphorus in cane showed the superiority of MAP, magnesium thermophosphate and triple superphosphate. Phosphate applications did not affect yield of cane plant, but increased yield of sugarcane ratoon as well as the amount of sugar produced per hectare. In general, the residual effect of insoluble phosphates increased over the years. The Agronomic Efficiency Indices (AEI) of phosphate decreased in the following order: Triple superphosphate (100%)> Thermophosphate (89%)> MAP (80%)>Itafós phosphate rock (67%)> Arad phosphate rock (60 %). / A fosfatagem é ainda uma prática pouco utilizada na cultura da cana-de-açúcar e pode ser feita com fertilizantes fosfatados de efeito residual longo. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito de fertilizantes fosfatados aplicados em área total antes do plantio da cana-de-açúcar na produção de colmos e qualidade da matéria prima de cana-de-açúcar. O experimento foi conduzido na Usina Jalles Machado, no município de Goianésia-GO durante três anos agrícolas. Os tratamentos foram constituídos de cinco fertilizantes fosfatados, solúveis e insolúveis na dose equivalente a 300 kg ha-1 de P2O5. Os fertilizantes usados foram: superfosfato triplo, monoamônio fosfato (MAP), fosfato natural reativo de Arad, fosfato natural de Itafós e termofosfato magnesiano. Para avaliar os efeitos imediatos e residuais destes fertilizantes, foram utilizados parâmetros tais como: altura de plantas (altura do solo até TVD), teor foliar de fósforo, produtividade da cana-de-açúcar na cana-planta, soca e ressoca, análise tecnologia na soqueira, quantidade de açúcar produzido e índice de eficiência agronômica dos fertilizantes utilizados. Na cana planta a adubação fosfatada proporcionou maior altura de plantas com a aplicação do termofosfato magnesiano e do superfosfato triplo. As concentrações de fósforo (P) nas folhas de cana-planta indicaram superioridade do MAP, termofosfato-magnesiano e superfosfatto-triplo. A fosfatagem não influenciou a produtividade da cana-planta, porém aumentou a produtividade da cana soca bem como a quantidade de açúcar produzida por hectare. De uma forma geral, o efeito residual dos fosfatos insolúveis aumentou no decorrer dos anos. O Índice de Eficiência Agronômica (IEA) dos fosfatos diminuiu na seguinte ordem: Superfosfato triplo (100 %) > Termofosfato (89%) > MAP (80%) > Fosfato Itafós (67%) > Fosfato Arad ( 60%). / Mestre em Agronomia

Aufgrund seines Nährstoffaneignungsvermögens und Stimulierung des Pflanzenmetabolismus kann der Arbuskuläre Mykorrhiza (AM) Pilz im Gartenbau nutzbringend eingesetzt werden. Der Fokus der Arbeit liegt auf den Möglichkeiten des AM Pilzes a) pflanzenernährerische Probleme zu lösen, b) die Blütenbildung bei Zierpflanzen zu steigern und c) das Gesundheitspotential von Gemüse für den Menschen zu erhöhen (sekundäre Pflanzenmetaboliten). Zur Lösung pflanzenernährerischer Probleme wurden Porree, Pelargonie und Poinsettie auf Torf-Substraten mit 20% und 40% Kompostzusatz untersucht. Ferner wurde Salat auf Torf-Substrat mit drei P Behandlungen getestet: substrateigenes P, Rohphosphat und lösliches P. Frühlingszwiebeln und Schnittknoblauch wurden in Nährlösungen auf Perlit mit niedrigem, mittlerem und hohem NH4+/NO3- Verhältnis ernährt. Gemessen wurde die AM Kolonisation, die Trockenmasse und die N, P, K, S, NO3-, Mg und Zn Konzentrationen im Spross. Die Blütenbildung von Pelargonien und Poinsettien wurde auf Torf-Kompost-Substraten untersucht. Der Einfluss auf die sekundäre Metaboliten von Frühlingszwiebeln und Schnittknoblauch wurde zusammen mit drei NH4+/NO3- Verhältnissen geprüft (s.o.). Untersucht wurden Glukose, Fruktose, Saccharose, lösliche Feststoffe und organische Schwefelverbindungen (gemessen als Pyruvat). Eine AM Kolonisation konnte die Nährstoffversorgung der Pflanze verbessern und die Blütenbildung erhöhen. Jedoch profitierten die Pflanzen unter den beschriebenen experimentellen Bedingungen nicht durchgängig in ihrem Wachstum und Metaboliten vom AM Pilz. Die Zugaben von Kompost ermöglichte die Verbesserung der Substratqualität für die Nährstoffversorgung und das Pflanzenwachstum unter ökologischen Gartenbaubedingungen. Der Ertrag von gesundheitsfördernden organischen Schwefelverbindungen konnte in Abhängigkeit von der jeweiligen Allium Spezies, durch eine Variation des Ammonium/Nitrat Verhältnissen und/oder durch einen AM Effekt auf das Wachstum gesteigert werden. / Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can be beneficial for horticultural crops due to their nutrient acquisition properties and stimulation of the plant metabolism. The present work focuses on the prospects of AM fungi a) to solve plant nutritional problems, b) to induce flower development of ornamental plants, and c) to improve the health potential of crop plants for humans. Contribution of AM fungi to plant nutritional problems were investigated with leek, pelargonium and poinsettia plants on peat-based substrates with 20% and 40% compost additions. Moreover, lettuce plants were supplied on peat-based substrates with substrate own P, rock phosphate, or highly soluble P. Bunching onion and chinese chive were propagated on perlite in nutrient solution with low, medium and high NH4+:NO3- ratios. Mycorrhizal colonization, dry weight, and N, P, K, S, NO3-, Mg and Zn concentrations in plants were measured. Mycorrhizal effects on bud and flower development of pelargonium and poinsettia plants were investigated on peat-based compost substrates. Treatment effects on secondary metabolites in bunching onion and chinese chive were determined by exposing mycorrhizal and non mycorrhizal plants to three NH4+:NO3- supply ratios. The metabolites measured were glucose, fructose, and sucrose, total soluble solids, and organosulfur compounds (measured as pyruvic acid). Colonization improved plant nutrient status and flower development. Under the described experimental conditions, however, plants did not consistently benefit in growth or plant composition from the mycorrhizal symbiosis. Additions of compost were a means of improving the substrate quality for an increased plant nutrient acquisition and plant growth in organic horticulture. The plant quality of Allium species in respect to organosulfur compounds was increased by taking the individual Allium species into consideration, their specific requirements for an optimal NH4+:NO3- supply ratio, and a possible AM effect on plant growth.

In the present thesis, implications of pasture establishment, fertilization and abandonment on soil C and nutrient dynamics were investigated for the mountain rainforest region of southern Ecuador. Over the past decades the natural forest of the study area has been threatened by conversion to cattle pastures. However, the soil fertility of these extensively grazed pastures (active pastures) declines continuously during pasture use. The invasion of bracken fern (Pteridium arachnoideum) leads to pasture abandonment when bracken becomes dominant. In order to reveal the mechanisms behind the deterioration of soil fertility, biotic and abiotic soil properties and their interaction were analyzed along a land‐use gradient (natural forest – active pasture – abandoned pasture). The ecosystem disturbance of the mountain rainforest through pasture use changed the microbial function and structure, and affected soil CO2‐C fluxes. Annually, 2 Mg soil CO2‐C ha‐1 were additionally emitted from the pasture land. This acceleration in soil respiration rates was related to accelerated rates of microbial C mineralization and fine‐root respiration. The high‐quality, N‐rich above‐ and belowground residues of the pasture grass (S. sphacelata, C4‐plant), especially the huge fine‐root biomass, provided a high C and N availability for soil microbes. Compared to the forest, increased soil pH and accelerated base saturation were further factors beneficial for soil microbial growth and metabolism of the upper mineral soil at active pastures. Three times higher amounts of microbial biomass C and a significant shift in the microbial community structure towards a higher relative abundance of Gram(‐)‐ bacteria and fungi were observed. Long‐term pasture use and the invasion of bracken (C3‐plant) diminished beneficial effects for microbes, causing a significant decrease in the C, net, and gross N mineralization rates as well as a two‐third reduction in the microbial biomass. A preferential substrate utilization of grass‐derived C4 by the soil microbes resulted in a rapid decline of the C4‐pool. As a consequence, the less available C3‐pool from bracken and former forest increased its dominance in the SOC‐pool, further decreasing pasture productivity and finally causing pasture abandonment. The lower quality and quantity of above‐ and belowground residues of the bracken (high lignin content, C/N) resulted in resource‐limited conditions that influenced the microbial function to greater extent than their structure. The microbial structure seemed to be sensitive mainly to soil pH along the land‐use gradient. Thus, a disconnection between microbial structure and function was identified. Fertilization experiments were conducted both in the lab and in the field to evaluate the impact of urea and/or rock phosphate amendment on SOM dynamics and on pasture productivity of active pastures. After combined fertilization the pasture yield was most efficiently increased by 2 Mg ha−1 a−1, indicating a NP‐limitation of grass growth. Furthermore, the fodder quality was improved by a higher content of P and Ca in the grass biomass. The microorganisms of the active pasture soil responded with an adaptation of their structure to the increased substrate availability in the short term, but did not change their initial functions in the long term. After urea/ rock phosphate addition a significant increase in the relative fungal abundance was detected, but neither a microbial limitation of energy nor of N or P was observed. However, urea addition accelerated gaseous losses of soil CO2‐C in the short term. In the study area, pronounced alterations in ecosystem functioning due to land‐use changes were detected, especially in soil C and N cycling rates. For a sustainable land‐use in this region it is crucial to prevent pasture degradation and to rehabilitate degraded pastures in order to protect the prevailing mountain rainforest ecosystem. It is of crucial importance for active pasture soils to maintain or even increase resource availability, being one indicator of soil fertility. In this context, the soil organic matter has to be retained in the long‐term to maintain high microbial activity and biomass, and thus pasture productivity. A moderate fertilization with urea and rock phosphate can be a first step to provide continuous nutrient supply for grass growth and to strengthen livestock health through increased fodder quality. However, the risk of further additional emissions of soil CO2‐C due to increased loads of urea fertilizer application has to be kept in mind. Overall, for the establishment of a sustainable land‐use management the control of bracken invasion and an adjusted nutrient management are needed. Further investigations on the reduction of soil nutrient losses and increased nutrient use efficiencies of plants, such as combined planting with legumes or the usage of cultivars with special nutrient acquisition strategies, should be in the focus of future work. / In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Auswirkungen der Weideetablierung, ‐düngung sowie des Verlassens von Weiden auf Bodenkohlenstoff‐ und Nährstoffdynamik in einer tropischen Bergregenwaldregion Ecuadors zusammenfassend dargestellt und diskutiert. Der Naturwald des Untersuchungsgebietes ist seit Jahrzehnten durch Brandrodung und die Umwandlung in extensiv genutztes Weideland (aktive Weide) in seinem flächenhaften Bestand bedroht. Als Problem hat sich der Verlust an Fruchtbarkeit der Weideböden während ihrer Bewirtschaftung herausgestellt. Des Weiteren führt die Einwanderung des Tropischen Adlerfarns (Pteridium arachnoideum, C3‐Pflanze) zu einer Reduktion der oberirdischen Grasbiomasse. Nimmt diese Entwicklung überhand, werden die betroffenen Flächen von den Bauern nicht mehr aktiv genutzt, verlassen und neuer Regenwald gerodet. Um mehr über die Mechanismen der Verringerung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit zu erfahren, wurden biotische und abiotische Bodeneigenschaften und deren Interaktion entlang eines Landnutzungsgradienten (Naturwald – aktive Weide – verlassene Weide) untersucht. Die Zerstörung des Bergregenwaldökosystems und die Überführung der gerodeten Flächen zur Weidebewirtschaftung verändert die Funktion und Struktur der Bodenmikroorganismen und beeinflusst den CO2‐C Fluss aus dem Boden. Jährlich werden 2 t CO2‐C ha‐1 zusätzlich vom Weideland emittiert. Diese Erhöhung der Bodenatmungsraten kann mit erhöhten Raten der mikrobiellen C‐Mineralisierung und Feinwurzelatmung in Verbindung gebracht werden. Das Weidegras (S. sphacelata, C4‐Pflanze) liefert C‐ und N‐reiche ober und unterirdische organische Substanz (z.B. durch die Feinwurzelbiomasse) und trägt damit zu einer Erhöhung der C‐ und N‐Verfügbarkeit für die mikroorganismen bei. Darüber hinaus stellen ein höherer pH‐Wert und eine erhöhte Basensättigung im oberen Mineralboden der aktiven Weide günstige Bedingungen für mikrobielles Wachstum und Metabolismus dar. Als Konsequenz sind die Gehalte an mikrobiellem Biomassekohlenstoff um das Dreifache erhöht und die mikrobiellen Gemeinschaftsstrukturen signifikant in Richtung einer höheren relativen Abundanz der Gram(‐)‐Bakterien und Pilze verschoben. Eine längerfristige Weidebewirtschaftung ohne Kompensation von Nährstoffverlusten sowie die Einwanderung des Tropischen Adlerfarnes verschlechterte die Bedingungen für die Mikroorganismen, was zu einem signifikanten Rückgang des SOC, der Netto‐ und Brutto‐N‐Mineralisierungsraten sowie zu einer Halbierung der mikrobiellen Biomasse führt. Eine bevorzugte Substratnutzung von Graskohlenstoff (C4) durch die Mikroorganismen hat einen schnellen Abbau des C4‐Pools zur Folge. Somit dominiert nun der mikrobiell schlechter verfügbare C3‐Pool den Bodenkohlenstoffpool. Dies führt zu einem weiteren Rückgang der Weideproduktivität und schließlich zum Offenlassen der Weide. Die geringere Qualität und Quantität der vom Farn stammenden ober‐ und unterirdischen organischen Substanz (hoher Ligninanteil, weites C/N), führten zu einer Limitierung der Ressourcen für die Mikroorganismen, welche deren Funktionen in größerem Maße beeinflussen als deren Gemeinschaftsstruktur. Im Gegensatz dazu wird entlang des Landnutzungsgradienten die Struktur hauptsächlich durch den pH‐Wert beeinflusst. Daraus folgt, dass Struktur und Funktion der Bodenmikroorganismen voneinander entkoppelt auf Veränderungen reagieren können. Um den Einfluss von Harnstoff‐ und/ oder Rohphosphatdüngung aktiver Weiden auf die Dynamik der organischen Bodensubstanz und auf die Weideproduktivität zu untersuchen, wurden sowohl Labor‐ als auch Feldversuche durchgeführt. Im Feldexperiment wurde gezeigt, dass eine NP‐Limitierung der Grasbiomasseproduktion vorliegt und durch eine geringe NP‐Kombinationsdüngung die oberirdische Phytomasseproduktion um 2 t ha−1 a−1 gesteigert und die Futterqualität durch eine Erhöhung der P‐ und Ca‐ Gehalte verbessert werden kann. Die Mikroorganismen reagierten mit einer Anpassung ihrer Struktur an die kurzzeitig erhöhte Substratverfügbarkeit. Nach Gabe von Harnstoff und/ oder Rohphosphat wurde weder eine N‐ noch eine P‐Limitierung der Bodenmikroorganismen festgestellt, und die mikrobiellen Funktionen wurden langfristig nicht verändert. Dagegen bewirkte die Düngergabe einen erhöhten relativen Anteil der Pilzabundanz. Im Labor sowie im Feld kam es nach Harnstoffdüngung kurzzeitig zu verstärkten gasförmigen Verlusten des Bodenkohlenstoffs. Aufgrund der Landnutzungsänderungen im Untersuchungsgebiet veränderten sich die Ökosystemfunktionen stark, speziell die Boden‐C‐ und Boden‐N‐Umsatzraten. Für eine nachhaltige Landnutzung in der Region, d. h., für den Schutz der noch verbliebenen natürlichen Bergregenwaldflächen, ist es von entscheidender Bedeutung, dass die Weidedegradierung verhindert wird und degradierte Flächen wieder in Nutzung genommen werden. Als entscheidend für die Weideproduktivität hat sich in dieser Studie die Ressourcenverfügbarkeit für Bodenmikroorganismen herausgestellt. Daher ist es sehr wichtig, diese Ressourcenverfügbarkeit in Böden aktiv‐genutzter Weiden zu erhalten oder noch zu erhöhen, denn sie wirkt sich vor allem auf die organische Bodensubstanz und im Wechselspiel damit auf die mikrobielle Biomasse und Aktivität aus. Eine moderate Kombinationsdüngung aus Harnstoff und Rohphosphat ist ein erster Schritt in diese Richtung. Dabei sollte jedoch das Risiko zusätzlicher bodenbürtiger CO2‐C Emissionen in Folge höherer Düngergaben berücksichtigt werden. Für ein nachhaltiges Landnutzungsmanagement sind Maßnahmen gegen die Einwanderung des Adlerfarnes und ein angepasstes Nährstoffmanagement notwendig. Weitere Untersuchungen sollten auf eine Minimierung der Nährstoffverluste und eine erhöhte Nährstoffnutzungseffizienz der Pflanzen fokussiert werden. Weidemischkulturen aus Gräsern mit Leguminosen sowie der Einsatz von Kulturen mit speziellen Nährstoffaneignungsstrategien könnten dabei eine große Rolle spielen und sollten in der Region erprobt werden. / La tesis presentada investiga el impacto del establecimiento de pasto, de su fertilización y de su manejo tradicional (abandono del pastizal) a la dinámica del carbono y de los nutrientes de suelo en la región de los bosques tropicales montañosos en el Sur de Ecuador. Durante las últimas décadas el bosque natural en el área de estudio ha estado amenazada por su conversión a pastizales. Sin embargo, la fertilidad del suelo en pastos de tipo extensivo (pastos activos) decrece frecuentemente durante el uso de los pastos. La invasión de Llashipa (Pteridium arachnoideum) conduce al abandono de los pastos cuando la ésta se vuelve dominante. Con la finalidad de revelar los mecanismos detrás de esta disminución de la fertilidad de suelo, se analizaron las propiedades bióticas y abióticas del suelo y sus interacciones, a lo largo de una gradiente del uso de la tierra (bosque natural —pasto activo — pastos abandonados). La perturbación del ecosistema de bosque tropical montañoso por su cambio de uso, mediante el establecimiento de pastizales, ha alterado la función y la estructura de los microorganismos y ha afectado el flujo de CO2‐C del suelo. Cada año 2 Mg CO2‐C ha‐1 fueron emitidas adicionalmente por el establecimiento de pastos. Esta aceleración en la tasa de respiración del suelo está relacionada con el aumento de las tasas de mineralización microbiana de carbono y de la respiración de las raíces. La alta calidad y abundancia de N de los residuos orgánicos del suelo con pasto Mequeron (S. sphacelata, C4‐planta), especialmente debido a la gran biomasa de las raíces finas, ofrecen una disponibilidad alta de C y N para los microorganismos. En comparación con el bosque natural, el aumento del pH y la saturación bases acelerada fueron condiciones más favorables para el crecimiento microbiano y para el metabolismo microbiano en el parte superior del suelo mineral en pastos activos. La cantidad de C de la biomasa de los microorganismos fue tres veces mayor que la del bosque y se ha observado un cambio significativo de la estructura de la comunidad microbiana, en donde la abundancia relativa de los hongos y de las bacterias Gram(‐) ha aumentado. El uso de pasto a largo plazo y la invasión de Llashipa (C3‐planta) han reducido los efectos benéficos para los microorganismos, que resultaron en una reducción significativa de las tasas de la mineralización de C y N, y en una reducción en dos tercios de la biomasa microbiana. El uso preferencial de los microorganismos por sustrato de pasto C4 han resultado en una rápida disminución de la reserva de C4. Como consecuencia, la menor disponibilidad de la reserva de C3 de las plantas de Llashipa y de la cobertura anterior de bosque ha incrementado su dominancia en la reserva de materia orgánica del suelo. Eso resulta, en una mayor disminución de la productividad de los pastos, conduciendo finalmente al abandono de los campos de pastos. La menor calidad y cantidad de los residuos acumulados sobre y bajo el suelo provenientes de la Llashipa han dado como resultado un sustrato de limitadas condiciones que están afectando más a las funciones microbiales antes que a su estructura. La estructura microbiana parece ser más sensible al pH del suelo a largo de la gradiente del uso de la tierra; de manera que se ha identificado una desconexión entre la estructura y función microbial. Experimentos de fertilización en laboratorio y en campo han sido realizados para evaluar el impacto de la aplicación de enmiendas (urea y/o roca fosfórica) a la dinámica de la materia orgánica y a la productividad de los pastos activos. El resultado del experimento de campo ha demostrado que la fertilización combinada es más efectiva, mostrando un aumento en la producción de biomasa de 2 Mg ha−1 a−1, lo que indica una limitación de N y P para el crecimiento del pasto. Además, la calidad de forraje se mostró incrementada ya que el contenido de P y de Ca han aumentado significativamente. Los microorganismos del suelo en el pasto activo han respondido a corto plazo con una adaptación de su estructura ante la disponibilidad de sustrato, pero no han mostrado un cambio de sus funciones iniciales a largo plazo. Después de la aplicación de urea y de la roca fosfórica, se detectó un incremento significativo en la abundancia de los hongos, pero tampoco se observó una limitación de energía microbial ni de N o P. Sin embargo, la aplicación de urea ha aumentado la pérdida gaseosa de CO2‐C del suelo a corto plazo. Debido al cambio de uso de la tierra en la área de investigación, se ha detectado una alteración notable de la función del ecosistema, especialmente en el ciclo de C y N de suelo. Para un uso sostenible de la tierra en esta región, es crucial el prevenir la degradación de pastos y rehabilitar aquellos degradados. En el suelo de pastos activos es de gran importancia el mantener o aún mejor el aumentar la disponibilidad del sustrato, que es uno de los indicadores de la fertilidad del suelo. En este contexto, la materia orgánica se debe ser retenida a largo plazo para mantener la actividad y biomasa microbiana alta y por ende la productividad de pasto. Una moderada fertilización con urea y roca fosfórica puede ser un primer paso para proveer un continuo suministro de nutrientes por el crecimiento del pasto y para reforzar la sanidad pecuaria por medio de un forraje de mayor calidad. Sin embargo, el riesgo de emisiones adicionales de CO2‐C del suelo debido a una aplicación más alta de urea debe tenerse en cuenta. Se puede concluir que para un manejo sostenible del uso de la tierra, tanto el control de la invasión de Llashipa y como un suministro adecuado de nutrientes son necesarios. Adicionalmente se podría decir que es necesario profundizar el estudio de la reducción de las pérdidas de los nutrientes de suelo y de la eficiencia del uso de los nutrientes en las plantas, así como las asociaciones de pastos con leguminosas o el uso de cultivos de absorción selectiva de nutrientes, que serían estrategias importantes para el futuro.

In the present thesis, implications of pasture establishment, fertilization and abandonment on soil C and nutrient dynamics were investigated for the mountain rainforest region of southern Ecuador. Over the past decades the natural forest of the study area has been threatened by conversion to cattle pastures. However, the soil fertility of these extensively grazed pastures (active pastures) declines continuously during pasture use. The invasion of bracken fern (Pteridium arachnoideum) leads to pasture abandonment when bracken becomes dominant. In order to reveal the mechanisms behind the deterioration of soil fertility, biotic and abiotic soil properties and their interaction were analyzed along a land‐use gradient (natural forest – active pasture – abandoned pasture). The ecosystem disturbance of the mountain rainforest through pasture use changed the microbial function and structure, and affected soil CO2‐C fluxes. Annually, 2 Mg soil CO2‐C ha‐1 were additionally emitted from the pasture land. This acceleration in soil respiration rates was related to accelerated rates of microbial C mineralization and fine‐root respiration. The high‐quality, N‐rich above‐ and belowground residues of the pasture grass (S. sphacelata, C4‐plant), especially the huge fine‐root biomass, provided a high C and N availability for soil microbes. Compared to the forest, increased soil pH and accelerated base saturation were further factors beneficial for soil microbial growth and metabolism of the upper mineral soil at active pastures. Three times higher amounts of microbial biomass C and a significant shift in the microbial community structure towards a higher relative abundance of Gram(‐)‐ bacteria and fungi were observed. Long‐term pasture use and the invasion of bracken (C3‐plant) diminished beneficial effects for microbes, causing a significant decrease in the C, net, and gross N mineralization rates as well as a two‐third reduction in the microbial biomass. A preferential substrate utilization of grass‐derived C4 by the soil microbes resulted in a rapid decline of the C4‐pool. As a consequence, the less available C3‐pool from bracken and former forest increased its dominance in the SOC‐pool, further decreasing pasture productivity and finally causing pasture abandonment. The lower quality and quantity of above‐ and belowground residues of the bracken (high lignin content, C/N) resulted in resource‐limited conditions that influenced the microbial function to greater extent than their structure. The microbial structure seemed to be sensitive mainly to soil pH along the land‐use gradient. Thus, a disconnection between microbial structure and function was identified. Fertilization experiments were conducted both in the lab and in the field to evaluate the impact of urea and/or rock phosphate amendment on SOM dynamics and on pasture productivity of active pastures. After combined fertilization the pasture yield was most efficiently increased by 2 Mg ha−1 a−1, indicating a NP‐limitation of grass growth. Furthermore, the fodder quality was improved by a higher content of P and Ca in the grass biomass. The microorganisms of the active pasture soil responded with an adaptation of their structure to the increased substrate availability in the short term, but did not change their initial functions in the long term. After urea/ rock phosphate addition a significant increase in the relative fungal abundance was detected, but neither a microbial limitation of energy nor of N or P was observed. However, urea addition accelerated gaseous losses of soil CO2‐C in the short term. In the study area, pronounced alterations in ecosystem functioning due to land‐use changes were detected, especially in soil C and N cycling rates. For a sustainable land‐use in this region it is crucial to prevent pasture degradation and to rehabilitate degraded pastures in order to protect the prevailing mountain rainforest ecosystem. It is of crucial importance for active pasture soils to maintain or even increase resource availability, being one indicator of soil fertility. In this context, the soil organic matter has to be retained in the long‐term to maintain high microbial activity and biomass, and thus pasture productivity. A moderate fertilization with urea and rock phosphate can be a first step to provide continuous nutrient supply for grass growth and to strengthen livestock health through increased fodder quality. However, the risk of further additional emissions of soil CO2‐C due to increased loads of urea fertilizer application has to be kept in mind. Overall, for the establishment of a sustainable land‐use management the control of bracken invasion and an adjusted nutrient management are needed. Further investigations on the reduction of soil nutrient losses and increased nutrient use efficiencies of plants, such as combined planting with legumes or the usage of cultivars with special nutrient acquisition strategies, should be in the focus of future work.:Contents Acknowledgement I Table of content III List of Tables V List of Figures VI Abbreviations VII Summary (English/German/Spanish) .................................................... 1 1 Introduction ................................................................................... 6 1.1 Impact of land‐use changes on C and nutrient dynamics ............... 6 1.1.1 Soil organic carbon and soil CO2 flux 7 1.1.2 The role of soil microbes 8 1.1.3 Plant‐microbe interactions 10 1.1.4 Impact of soil environment on soil microbes 11 1.2 Pasture establishment in the tropics .......................................... 13 1.3 Research area ....................................................................... .... 15 2 Objectives and research questions ......................... ................... 19 2.1 Land‐use change ........................................................................ 19 2.2 Pasture management ............................................................. ... 21 3 Methodology ................................................................................. 22 3.1 Study sites ............................................................................... 22 3.1.1 Land‐use gradient 22 3.1.2 Pasture Fertilization Experiment (FERPAST) 23 3.2 General analyses ....................................................................... 24 3.2.1 Laboratory experiments 25 3.2.2 In situ measurements 26 3.2.3 Statistics 27 4 Results ............................................................................................ 28 4.1 Soil C and nutrient dynamics along a land‐use gradient ............. 28 Potthast, K., Hamer, U., Makeschin, F., 2011. Land‐use change in a tropical mountain rainforest region of southern Ecuador affects soil microorganisms and nutrient cycling. Biogeochemistry, 1‐17. 4.2 Impact of pH and ongoing succession on microbial function and structure .......... 29 4.3 Response of soil microbes to bracken‐invasion ........................... 32 Potthast K., Hamer U., Makeschin F. 2010. Impact of litter quality on mineralization processes in managed and abandoned pasture soils in Southern Ecuador. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42, 56‐64. 4.4 Response of soil microbes and pasture grass to fertilization ........33 Hamer, U., Potthast, K., Makeschin, F., 2009. Urea fertilisation affected soil organic matter dynamics and microbial community structure in pasture soils of Southern Ecuador. Applied Soil Ecology 43, 226‐233. Potthast, K., Hamer, U., Makeschin, F., 2012. In an Ecuadorian pasture soil the growth of Setaria sphacelata, but not of soil microorganisms, is co‐limited by N and P. Applied Soil Ecology 62, 103‐114. 5 Discussion .................................................................................... 34 5.1 Impact of land‐use changes ...................................................... 34 5.1.1 Soil CO2 fluxes 34 5.1.2 Microbial structure and function 34 5.2 Soil fertility loss of pastures ‐reasons and first prevention steps‐ . 37 5.2.1 Litter decay and SOM dynamics 37 5.2.2 Fertilization and SOM dynamics 39 5.3 Conclusions and Perspectives ...................................................... 42 References ..................................................................................... 46 Curriculum vitae......................................................................... 58 / In der vorliegenden Dissertation werden die Auswirkungen der Weideetablierung, ‐düngung sowie des Verlassens von Weiden auf Bodenkohlenstoff‐ und Nährstoffdynamik in einer tropischen Bergregenwaldregion Ecuadors zusammenfassend dargestellt und diskutiert. Der Naturwald des Untersuchungsgebietes ist seit Jahrzehnten durch Brandrodung und die Umwandlung in extensiv genutztes Weideland (aktive Weide) in seinem flächenhaften Bestand bedroht. Als Problem hat sich der Verlust an Fruchtbarkeit der Weideböden während ihrer Bewirtschaftung herausgestellt. Des Weiteren führt die Einwanderung des Tropischen Adlerfarns (Pteridium arachnoideum, C3‐Pflanze) zu einer Reduktion der oberirdischen Grasbiomasse. Nimmt diese Entwicklung überhand, werden die betroffenen Flächen von den Bauern nicht mehr aktiv genutzt, verlassen und neuer Regenwald gerodet. Um mehr über die Mechanismen der Verringerung der Bodenfruchtbarkeit zu erfahren, wurden biotische und abiotische Bodeneigenschaften und deren Interaktion entlang eines Landnutzungsgradienten (Naturwald – aktive Weide – verlassene Weide) untersucht. Die Zerstörung des Bergregenwaldökosystems und die Überführung der gerodeten Flächen zur Weidebewirtschaftung verändert die Funktion und Struktur der Bodenmikroorganismen und beeinflusst den CO2‐C Fluss aus dem Boden. Jährlich werden 2 t CO2‐C ha‐1 zusätzlich vom Weideland emittiert. Diese Erhöhung der Bodenatmungsraten kann mit erhöhten Raten der mikrobiellen C‐Mineralisierung und Feinwurzelatmung in Verbindung gebracht werden. Das Weidegras (S. sphacelata, C4‐Pflanze) liefert C‐ und N‐reiche ober und unterirdische organische Substanz (z.B. durch die Feinwurzelbiomasse) und trägt damit zu einer Erhöhung der C‐ und N‐Verfügbarkeit für die mikroorganismen bei. Darüber hinaus stellen ein höherer pH‐Wert und eine erhöhte Basensättigung im oberen Mineralboden der aktiven Weide günstige Bedingungen für mikrobielles Wachstum und Metabolismus dar. Als Konsequenz sind die Gehalte an mikrobiellem Biomassekohlenstoff um das Dreifache erhöht und die mikrobiellen Gemeinschaftsstrukturen signifikant in Richtung einer höheren relativen Abundanz der Gram(‐)‐Bakterien und Pilze verschoben. Eine längerfristige Weidebewirtschaftung ohne Kompensation von Nährstoffverlusten sowie die Einwanderung des Tropischen Adlerfarnes verschlechterte die Bedingungen für die Mikroorganismen, was zu einem signifikanten Rückgang des SOC, der Netto‐ und Brutto‐N‐Mineralisierungsraten sowie zu einer Halbierung der mikrobiellen Biomasse führt. Eine bevorzugte Substratnutzung von Graskohlenstoff (C4) durch die Mikroorganismen hat einen schnellen Abbau des C4‐Pools zur Folge. Somit dominiert nun der mikrobiell schlechter verfügbare C3‐Pool den Bodenkohlenstoffpool. Dies führt zu einem weiteren Rückgang der Weideproduktivität und schließlich zum Offenlassen der Weide. Die geringere Qualität und Quantität der vom Farn stammenden ober‐ und unterirdischen organischen Substanz (hoher Ligninanteil, weites C/N), führten zu einer Limitierung der Ressourcen für die Mikroorganismen, welche deren Funktionen in größerem Maße beeinflussen als deren Gemeinschaftsstruktur. Im Gegensatz dazu wird entlang des Landnutzungsgradienten die Struktur hauptsächlich durch den pH‐Wert beeinflusst. Daraus folgt, dass Struktur und Funktion der Bodenmikroorganismen voneinander entkoppelt auf Veränderungen reagieren können. Um den Einfluss von Harnstoff‐ und/ oder Rohphosphatdüngung aktiver Weiden auf die Dynamik der organischen Bodensubstanz und auf die Weideproduktivität zu untersuchen, wurden sowohl Labor‐ als auch Feldversuche durchgeführt. Im Feldexperiment wurde gezeigt, dass eine NP‐Limitierung der Grasbiomasseproduktion vorliegt und durch eine geringe NP‐Kombinationsdüngung die oberirdische Phytomasseproduktion um 2 t ha−1 a−1 gesteigert und die Futterqualität durch eine Erhöhung der P‐ und Ca‐ Gehalte verbessert werden kann. Die Mikroorganismen reagierten mit einer Anpassung ihrer Struktur an die kurzzeitig erhöhte Substratverfügbarkeit. Nach Gabe von Harnstoff und/ oder Rohphosphat wurde weder eine N‐ noch eine P‐Limitierung der Bodenmikroorganismen festgestellt, und die mikrobiellen Funktionen wurden langfristig nicht verändert. Dagegen bewirkte die Düngergabe einen erhöhten relativen Anteil der Pilzabundanz. Im Labor sowie im Feld kam es nach Harnstoffdüngung kurzzeitig zu verstärkten gasförmigen Verlusten des Bodenkohlenstoffs. Aufgrund der Landnutzungsänderungen im Untersuchungsgebiet veränderten sich die Ökosystemfunktionen stark, speziell die Boden‐C‐ und Boden‐N‐Umsatzraten. Für eine nachhaltige Landnutzung in der Region, d. h., für den Schutz der noch verbliebenen natürlichen Bergregenwaldflächen, ist es von entscheidender Bedeutung, dass die Weidedegradierung verhindert wird und degradierte Flächen wieder in Nutzung genommen werden. Als entscheidend für die Weideproduktivität hat sich in dieser Studie die Ressourcenverfügbarkeit für Bodenmikroorganismen herausgestellt. Daher ist es sehr wichtig, diese Ressourcenverfügbarkeit in Böden aktiv‐genutzter Weiden zu erhalten oder noch zu erhöhen, denn sie wirkt sich vor allem auf die organische Bodensubstanz und im Wechselspiel damit auf die mikrobielle Biomasse und Aktivität aus. Eine moderate Kombinationsdüngung aus Harnstoff und Rohphosphat ist ein erster Schritt in diese Richtung. Dabei sollte jedoch das Risiko zusätzlicher bodenbürtiger CO2‐C Emissionen in Folge höherer Düngergaben berücksichtigt werden. Für ein nachhaltiges Landnutzungsmanagement sind Maßnahmen gegen die Einwanderung des Adlerfarnes und ein angepasstes Nährstoffmanagement notwendig. Weitere Untersuchungen sollten auf eine Minimierung der Nährstoffverluste und eine erhöhte Nährstoffnutzungseffizienz der Pflanzen fokussiert werden. Weidemischkulturen aus Gräsern mit Leguminosen sowie der Einsatz von Kulturen mit speziellen Nährstoffaneignungsstrategien könnten dabei eine große Rolle spielen und sollten in der Region erprobt werden.:Contents Acknowledgement I Table of content III List of Tables V List of Figures VI Abbreviations VII Summary (English/German/Spanish) .................................................... 1 1 Introduction ................................................................................... 6 1.1 Impact of land‐use changes on C and nutrient dynamics ............... 6 1.1.1 Soil organic carbon and soil CO2 flux 7 1.1.2 The role of soil microbes 8 1.1.3 Plant‐microbe interactions 10 1.1.4 Impact of soil environment on soil microbes 11 1.2 Pasture establishment in the tropics .......................................... 13 1.3 Research area ....................................................................... .... 15 2 Objectives and research questions ......................... ................... 19 2.1 Land‐use change ........................................................................ 19 2.2 Pasture management ............................................................. ... 21 3 Methodology ................................................................................. 22 3.1 Study sites ............................................................................... 22 3.1.1 Land‐use gradient 22 3.1.2 Pasture Fertilization Experiment (FERPAST) 23 3.2 General analyses ....................................................................... 24 3.2.1 Laboratory experiments 25 3.2.2 In situ measurements 26 3.2.3 Statistics 27 4 Results ............................................................................................ 28 4.1 Soil C and nutrient dynamics along a land‐use gradient ............. 28 Potthast, K., Hamer, U., Makeschin, F., 2011. Land‐use change in a tropical mountain rainforest region of southern Ecuador affects soil microorganisms and nutrient cycling. Biogeochemistry, 1‐17. 4.2 Impact of pH and ongoing succession on microbial function and structure .......... 29 4.3 Response of soil microbes to bracken‐invasion ........................... 32 Potthast K., Hamer U., Makeschin F. 2010. Impact of litter quality on mineralization processes in managed and abandoned pasture soils in Southern Ecuador. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42, 56‐64. 4.4 Response of soil microbes and pasture grass to fertilization ........33 Hamer, U., Potthast, K., Makeschin, F., 2009. Urea fertilisation affected soil organic matter dynamics and microbial community structure in pasture soils of Southern Ecuador. Applied Soil Ecology 43, 226‐233. Potthast, K., Hamer, U., Makeschin, F., 2012. In an Ecuadorian pasture soil the growth of Setaria sphacelata, but not of soil microorganisms, is co‐limited by N and P. Applied Soil Ecology 62, 103‐114. 5 Discussion .................................................................................... 34 5.1 Impact of land‐use changes ...................................................... 34 5.1.1 Soil CO2 fluxes 34 5.1.2 Microbial structure and function 34 5.2 Soil fertility loss of pastures ‐reasons and first prevention steps‐ . 37 5.2.1 Litter decay and SOM dynamics 37 5.2.2 Fertilization and SOM dynamics 39 5.3 Conclusions and Perspectives ...................................................... 42 References ..................................................................................... 46 Curriculum vitae......................................................................... 58 / La tesis presentada investiga el impacto del establecimiento de pasto, de su fertilización y de su manejo tradicional (abandono del pastizal) a la dinámica del carbono y de los nutrientes de suelo en la región de los bosques tropicales montañosos en el Sur de Ecuador. Durante las últimas décadas el bosque natural en el área de estudio ha estado amenazada por su conversión a pastizales. Sin embargo, la fertilidad del suelo en pastos de tipo extensivo (pastos activos) decrece frecuentemente durante el uso de los pastos. La invasión de Llashipa (Pteridium arachnoideum) conduce al abandono de los pastos cuando la ésta se vuelve dominante. Con la finalidad de revelar los mecanismos detrás de esta disminución de la fertilidad de suelo, se analizaron las propiedades bióticas y abióticas del suelo y sus interacciones, a lo largo de una gradiente del uso de la tierra (bosque natural —pasto activo — pastos abandonados). La perturbación del ecosistema de bosque tropical montañoso por su cambio de uso, mediante el establecimiento de pastizales, ha alterado la función y la estructura de los microorganismos y ha afectado el flujo de CO2‐C del suelo. Cada año 2 Mg CO2‐C ha‐1 fueron emitidas adicionalmente por el establecimiento de pastos. Esta aceleración en la tasa de respiración del suelo está relacionada con el aumento de las tasas de mineralización microbiana de carbono y de la respiración de las raíces. La alta calidad y abundancia de N de los residuos orgánicos del suelo con pasto Mequeron (S. sphacelata, C4‐planta), especialmente debido a la gran biomasa de las raíces finas, ofrecen una disponibilidad alta de C y N para los microorganismos. En comparación con el bosque natural, el aumento del pH y la saturación bases acelerada fueron condiciones más favorables para el crecimiento microbiano y para el metabolismo microbiano en el parte superior del suelo mineral en pastos activos. La cantidad de C de la biomasa de los microorganismos fue tres veces mayor que la del bosque y se ha observado un cambio significativo de la estructura de la comunidad microbiana, en donde la abundancia relativa de los hongos y de las bacterias Gram(‐) ha aumentado. El uso de pasto a largo plazo y la invasión de Llashipa (C3‐planta) han reducido los efectos benéficos para los microorganismos, que resultaron en una reducción significativa de las tasas de la mineralización de C y N, y en una reducción en dos tercios de la biomasa microbiana. El uso preferencial de los microorganismos por sustrato de pasto C4 han resultado en una rápida disminución de la reserva de C4. Como consecuencia, la menor disponibilidad de la reserva de C3 de las plantas de Llashipa y de la cobertura anterior de bosque ha incrementado su dominancia en la reserva de materia orgánica del suelo. Eso resulta, en una mayor disminución de la productividad de los pastos, conduciendo finalmente al abandono de los campos de pastos. La menor calidad y cantidad de los residuos acumulados sobre y bajo el suelo provenientes de la Llashipa han dado como resultado un sustrato de limitadas condiciones que están afectando más a las funciones microbiales antes que a su estructura. La estructura microbiana parece ser más sensible al pH del suelo a largo de la gradiente del uso de la tierra; de manera que se ha identificado una desconexión entre la estructura y función microbial. Experimentos de fertilización en laboratorio y en campo han sido realizados para evaluar el impacto de la aplicación de enmiendas (urea y/o roca fosfórica) a la dinámica de la materia orgánica y a la productividad de los pastos activos. El resultado del experimento de campo ha demostrado que la fertilización combinada es más efectiva, mostrando un aumento en la producción de biomasa de 2 Mg ha−1 a−1, lo que indica una limitación de N y P para el crecimiento del pasto. Además, la calidad de forraje se mostró incrementada ya que el contenido de P y de Ca han aumentado significativamente. Los microorganismos del suelo en el pasto activo han respondido a corto plazo con una adaptación de su estructura ante la disponibilidad de sustrato, pero no han mostrado un cambio de sus funciones iniciales a largo plazo. Después de la aplicación de urea y de la roca fosfórica, se detectó un incremento significativo en la abundancia de los hongos, pero tampoco se observó una limitación de energía microbial ni de N o P. Sin embargo, la aplicación de urea ha aumentado la pérdida gaseosa de CO2‐C del suelo a corto plazo. Debido al cambio de uso de la tierra en la área de investigación, se ha detectado una alteración notable de la función del ecosistema, especialmente en el ciclo de C y N de suelo. Para un uso sostenible de la tierra en esta región, es crucial el prevenir la degradación de pastos y rehabilitar aquellos degradados. En el suelo de pastos activos es de gran importancia el mantener o aún mejor el aumentar la disponibilidad del sustrato, que es uno de los indicadores de la fertilidad del suelo. En este contexto, la materia orgánica se debe ser retenida a largo plazo para mantener la actividad y biomasa microbiana alta y por ende la productividad de pasto. Una moderada fertilización con urea y roca fosfórica puede ser un primer paso para proveer un continuo suministro de nutrientes por el crecimiento del pasto y para reforzar la sanidad pecuaria por medio de un forraje de mayor calidad. Sin embargo, el riesgo de emisiones adicionales de CO2‐C del suelo debido a una aplicación más alta de urea debe tenerse en cuenta. Se puede concluir que para un manejo sostenible del uso de la tierra, tanto el control de la invasión de Llashipa y como un suministro adecuado de nutrientes son necesarios. Adicionalmente se podría decir que es necesario profundizar el estudio de la reducción de las pérdidas de los nutrientes de suelo y de la eficiencia del uso de los nutrientes en las plantas, así como las asociaciones de pastos con leguminosas o el uso de cultivos de absorción selectiva de nutrientes, que serían estrategias importantes para el futuro.:Contents Acknowledgement I Table of content III List of Tables V List of Figures VI Abbreviations VII Summary (English/German/Spanish) .................................................... 1 1 Introduction ................................................................................... 6 1.1 Impact of land‐use changes on C and nutrient dynamics ............... 6 1.1.1 Soil organic carbon and soil CO2 flux 7 1.1.2 The role of soil microbes 8 1.1.3 Plant‐microbe interactions 10 1.1.4 Impact of soil environment on soil microbes 11 1.2 Pasture establishment in the tropics .......................................... 13 1.3 Research area ....................................................................... .... 15 2 Objectives and research questions ......................... ................... 19 2.1 Land‐use change ........................................................................ 19 2.2 Pasture management ............................................................. ... 21 3 Methodology ................................................................................. 22 3.1 Study sites ............................................................................... 22 3.1.1 Land‐use gradient 22 3.1.2 Pasture Fertilization Experiment (FERPAST) 23 3.2 General analyses ....................................................................... 24 3.2.1 Laboratory experiments 25 3.2.2 In situ measurements 26 3.2.3 Statistics 27 4 Results ............................................................................................ 28 4.1 Soil C and nutrient dynamics along a land‐use gradient ............. 28 Potthast, K., Hamer, U., Makeschin, F., 2011. Land‐use change in a tropical mountain rainforest region of southern Ecuador affects soil microorganisms and nutrient cycling. Biogeochemistry, 1‐17. 4.2 Impact of pH and ongoing succession on microbial function and structure .......... 29 4.3 Response of soil microbes to bracken‐invasion ........................... 32 Potthast K., Hamer U., Makeschin F. 2010. Impact of litter quality on mineralization processes in managed and abandoned pasture soils in Southern Ecuador. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 42, 56‐64. 4.4 Response of soil microbes and pasture grass to fertilization ........33 Hamer, U., Potthast, K., Makeschin, F., 2009. Urea fertilisation affected soil organic matter dynamics and microbial community structure in pasture soils of Southern Ecuador. Applied Soil Ecology 43, 226‐233. Potthast, K., Hamer, U., Makeschin, F., 2012. In an Ecuadorian pasture soil the growth of Setaria sphacelata, but not of soil microorganisms, is co‐limited by N and P. Applied Soil Ecology 62, 103‐114. 5 Discussion .................................................................................... 34 5.1 Impact of land‐use changes ...................................................... 34 5.1.1 Soil CO2 fluxes 34 5.1.2 Microbial structure and function 34 5.2 Soil fertility loss of pastures ‐reasons and first prevention steps‐ . 37 5.2.1 Litter decay and SOM dynamics 37 5.2.2 Fertilization and SOM dynamics 39 5.3 Conclusions and Perspectives ...................................................... 42 References ..................................................................................... 46 Curriculum vitae......................................................................... 58