Using a mixed methods, interdisciplinary case study approach, this research project explores the benefits, risks, and challenges of male migration for women who reside in San Juan Guelavía, Oaxaca, Mexico. In a unique approach in the field of migration studies, this project considers not only women whose husbands have migrated--absent husbands--but also the impact of male migration on women whose husbands have returned as well as women whose husbands have never left--anchored husbands. Women with returned husbands and even women with anchored husbands feel the threat, worry, and fear that male migration could, at an unknown point in the future, fragment their family. This case study approach looks at how women's work responses are differentiated by husbands' migration status, by age, and by husband's control over women's activities. Women with absent husbands tend be income-producing women as well as women ages 35 to 50 far more than women 35 and under and 50 and over. With motherhood as a cultured priority of rural Mexican women, women's income-producing opportunities are primarily limited to options within the home or in venues that can accommodate their children until the children enter school. Although this case study showed little or no connection between male migration and educational attainment, substantial policy-worthy findings suggest that the lack of value that residents of San Juan Guelavía place on the local public high school curriculum negatively impacts educational attainment of children beyond middle school. Women's traditional and cultural emphasis of marriage for their daughters as well as their reluctance to expose daughters to the negative influences of the city sway the decisions that women make for their daughters.

As a result of the economic reforms that were introduced in Vietnam in 1986, the country has grown economically. However, due to a bias toward development policies which have been mainly concentrated in urban areas, the economic gap between rural and urban areas has rapidly widened over time. More job opportunities and better living conditions in the city, as well as low productivity in agriculture, have caused people to move to the major cities. Consequently, rural to urban migration has become one of the dominant flows of internal migration in the country in recent years. This migration stream not only has increased in scale but also in its complexity. Particularly, the age of the migrants has become younger as many young people, especially females, become involved in this flow. Moreover, this migration flow has become less selective in terms of education as both more and less educated people migrate. Also, not only the rich but the poor take part in this movement. This thesis considers the determinants of moving and the experiences of young migrants to Ho Chi Minh City in terms of their economic, social and cultural adjustment in order to provide deep insights into the lives of young people when they migrate. This thesis has used the migration model of Scharping (1997) as the theoretical framework to investigate the decision to move as well as their living experiences in the city. A multiple method approach has been used to the study as both quantitative and qualitative data were analysed. Quantitative data such as secondary data from censuses and data from large-scale surveys at the national and the city levels and primary data from the author’s survey with 300 young migrants were applied. Qualitative data from 25 in-depth interviews with young migrants, 5 with authorities and 5 with migrant returnees were used in this study, to provide detailed information on migrants’ lives. While the city has attracted a large number of youth from rural areas because of its development advantages, the city’s government has applied policies to limit this flow. Yet, this migration control policy has proved costly and ineffective in restricting the flows of people to the major cities. This policy has created many difficulties for migrants in the city. In addition, low levels of education and limited work skills force many young migrants to work in the informal sector where their human rights are heavily violated. Other young migrants work in cheap intensive-labour factories. Low pay and hard work, but without labour and medical insurance, lead these young migrants to live on the margins of urban society. These findings suggest that if the local people do not accept these migrants, and urban policies make no effort to assistance them, it is impossible for young migrants in the city to be successful in building new lives and careers. Instead of trying to limit rural to urban migration, the national government should put more effort into narrowing the rural-urban gap by improving development in rural areas. More jobs with better pay in rural areas may be the most effective and sustainable way of reducing rural to urban migration flows. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1331422 / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of Adelaide, School of Social Sciences, 2008

The study deals with the migration of large numbers of black workers from white-owned farms in the Albany and Bathurst districts to Grahamstown. In South Africa the migration of farm residents to the towns has not yet received much attention from researchers. Instead, most migrant studies have concentrated on the migration from the 'homeland' areas and for this reason little is known about the people who have been associated with the farms in some cases for five generations. From the 1940s these farms were rapidly losing labour largely on account of the introduction of mechanization and land rationalization. At that time many farm dwellers were migrating to Grahamstown and, to same extent, Port Elizabeth. The past few decades witnessed a massive further migration from these farms and this, together with natural increase, contributed to the 53,9% increase in Graharnstown's black population in the 1970-80 decade. The study has these aims: 1. To consider the factors that have promoted the move away from the farms , especially as from the end of the Second World War. 2. To account for the overwhelming attraction of Grahamstown as a destination among those who must, or decide to, migrate. 3. To assess the mode of adaptation of those who settle in Grahamstown pennanently. Those who have been in town for several decades provide a background for the central focus of the study, the new irrmigrants who came to town a decade ago or more recently. The latter include people who migrated to town from August 1984, i.e. during a period of extra-ordinary political developments and serious unrest in Grahamstown. The study places an emphasis on the way the imnigrants themselves perceive the process. The aims of the study which have been mentioned above revolve around the impoverishment of rural inhabitants who must now work for wages with hardly any measure of autonomy over the major aspects of their lives while those who go and live in town must contend with a competitive urban economy in which economic opportunities are scarce. This is the central problem of this thesis.

The study describes the formation and the establishment of the first urban congregation of the Berlin Mission in the Cape at the turn of the century. The establishment of the Cape Town Congregation was not a result of urban mission work but rather a result of the townward movement of rural coloured people who already belonged to the Berlin Mission Church. At first the mission headquarters in Berlin resisted an involvement in Cape Town, but the members there and the missionaries of the Cape Synod urged the Berl in Mission to accept the responsibility. Fol lowing the advice of the Moravian Mission the Berliners finally sent a missionary, and declared the congregation as a proper mission station on May 7, 1907. The study closes with the consecration of the church building in Searle Street in 1923 as a visible sign for the establishment of the Berlin Mission Church in Cape Town. / Christian Spirituality, Church History and Missiology / M. Th. (Missiology)

Solicitud de envio de manuscrito como artículo científico. / Objetivo. Identificar si la migración interna de mujeres en edad fértil, considerando los flujos migratorios y tiempo de residencia, se asocia con mayor Violencia Física reciente por la Pareja (VFP). Metodología. Diseño transversal analítico secundario a la ENDES 2015 a 2017. La exposición fue Migración Interna Establecida en mujeres de 15 a 49 años, clasificándola en Migrante Rural-Rural, Urbano-Urbano, Urbano-Rural, Rural-Urbano y No Migrante. La variable resultado fue Violencia Física y/o Sexual reciente de pareja. Se utilizo un Modelo Lineal Generalizado de la familia y opción de enlace Log Poisson para estimar la asociación entre flujos de migración y la VFP en forma de PR. Resultados. En comparación con mujeres no migrantes, las mujeres migrantes Rural – Urbano tuvieron 14% más probabilidad de VFP (PRa 1.14 IC95 1.02 a 1.28 p=0.016), mientras la diferencia de probabilidades de VFP en mujeres migrantes Urbano-Rural, Rural-Rural y Urbano-Urbano no fue significativa (PRa 1.16 IC95 0.93 a 1.44 p=0.164, PRa= 0.94 IC95 0.83 a 1.05 p=0.309 y PRa 0.99 IC95 0.86 a 1.14 p=0.961 respectivamente). Residentes post-migración de 5 a 12 y de 13 a 20 años tuvieron 19% y 13% más de probabilidad de VFP que las no migrantes (PRc 1.19 IC95 1.07 a 1.31 p=0.001 y PRc=1.13 IC95 1.01 a 1.28 p=0.031 respectivamente). Conclusión. La migración rural-urbana en mujeres en edad fértil es un factor asociado a mayor probabilidad de VFP en los últimos 12 meses. El tiempo de residencia después de la migración estuvo relacionado a mayor VFP. / Background. In latest decades women internal migration in developing countries increased, mostly related to urbanization process: gender relations and IPV (Intimate Partner Violence) dynamics changed. The aim of this study was to identify whether women internal migration flows were related with recent IPV. Method. Analitical cross-sectional study based on peruvian DHS conducted from 2015 to 2017. The exposure was Intern migration established in women from 15 to 49 years old. The classification was set as Rural-Rural migrant, Urban-Urban migrant, Urban-Rural migrant, Rural-Urban migrant and Non-migrant. The outcome variable was Recent Physical and/or Sexual Intimate Partner Violence report. A generalized linear model of the family and a Log Poisson link option were used in order to estimate the association between migration flows and IPV by means of PR (Prevalence Ratio). Results. In contrast to non-migrant women, Rural-Urban migrant women had 14% higher probabilities of IPV (PRa 1.14 CI95 1.02 a 1.28 p=0.016), meanwhile the probabilities difference of IPV in Urban-Rural migrant women, Rural-Rural migrant women, and Urban-Urban migrant women was not meaningful (PRa 1.16 CI95 0.93 to 1.44 p=0.164, PRa= 0.94 CI95 0.83 a 1.05 p=0.309 and PRa 0.99 CI95 0.86 to 1.14 p=0.961 respectively) Post-migration residents from 5 to 12 years old and from 13 to 20 years old had 19% and 13% more probabilities of IPV than the non-migrants (PRc 1.19 CI95 1.07 to 1.31 p=0.001 and PRc=1.13 CI95 1.01 to 1.28 p=0.031 respectively) Conclusion. During the last 12 months, Rural-Urban migration in women during fertile age is an associated factor to a higher probability of IPV. The residence time after migration was related to a higher IPV. / Tesis

La migration interne est la principale forme de migration humaine et est sensible aux changements environnementaux, économiques et politiques. En Afrique de l'Ouest, les pressions environnementales et démographiques entraînent une précarité croissante pour les populations rurales dépendantes de l'agriculture pluviale, qui optent pour la migration temporaire vers les zones urbaines pour diversifier leurs moyens de subsistance. Ceci soulève deux questions : d’une part, il est important d’identifier les facteurs facilitant la migration et donc, la capacité d’adaptation des ménages vulnérables. Par ailleurs, dans les pays en pleine transition démographique, les écarts dans les niveaux de fécondité entre régions rurales et urbaines sont généralement élevés et les migrations entre ces milieux peuvent contribuer à la diffusion et l’homogénéisation de la fécondité. Ceci soulève la seconde question de comprendre si et comment la migration interne, surtout temporaire, s’associe à des changements dans les croyances et préférences de fécondité et de contraception chez les migrants. Malgré la pertinence de ces questions, nous constatons que la migration interne demeure le ‘parent pauvre’ en démographie et dans l’étude plus large des migrations; une position qui ne reflète pas son importance. Ainsi, pour contribuer à nos connaissances sur la migration interne dans le contexte de pays à faible et moyen revenu, cette thèse propose trois articles abordant les deux problématiques précédemment étalées. Pour y répondre, nous accordons une attention particulière au concept de réseaux sociaux; un concept central dans l’étude de la prise de décision de migrer et de la diffusion de la fécondité, mais qui fut mal intégré à l’étude de la migration interne et virtuellement absent du champ d’étude s’intéressant à la fécondité des populations migrantes. Nous utilisons un jumelage inédit de données, croisant les données longitudinales de l’observatoire de population de Niakhar, au Sénégal, à celles du projet Réseaux Sociaux et Santé à Niakhar. Conjointement, ces données permettent une analyse approfondie des trajectoires des migrants, leurs réseaux sociaux, ainsi que leur croyances et préférences de fécondité. Nos études se focalisent sur un seul village situé dans la zone d’étude de l’observatoire de population de Niakhar et s’intéressent aux migrants se dirigeant vers la capitale, Dakar. Dans le premier article, nous profitons des outils descriptifs et multivariés de l’analyse de survie afin d’explorer l’association entre l'exposition à du capital social migratoire dans les réseaux et la probabilité d’une première migration vers Dakar. Nous avons décomposé les réseaux de migrants selon les liens à des migrants de retour, des migrants actuels et des résidents non-migrants de la destination afin de capturer l'hétérogénéité du capital social lié à la migration. Nous testons également l'influence de la force des liens, évaluée subjectivement, et des liens structurellement faibles mesurés par les connexions de second ordre ("ami d'un ami"). Nous arrivons ainsi à revisiter certains des principaux postulats des théories de la causalité cumulative, du capital social (en migration) et de la force des liens. Par exemple, alors que les réseaux sont considérés être moins importants pour la migration interne, surtout dans des contextes où elle est généralisée, cette étude permet de revoir de tels constats en adoptant une définition élargie et plus complète du capital social migratoire, incluant des catégories de liens généralement sous-représentées ou absente dans la littérature empirique : les liens avec des non-migrants au lieu de destination et les liens faibles. Dans le second article, nous avons examiné comment la migration rurale-urbaine s’associe à des différences durables dans les croyances et les préférences en matière de fécondité et de contraception. À l’aide de quelques innovations méthodologiques et conceptuelles, nous avons distingué les effets d’adaptation et de sélection sur la fécondité des migrants temporaires à Dakar à l’aide de modèles de régression, malgré une approche transversale. Ceci fut notamment accompli grâce à l’inclusion d’un groupe de contrôle composé de futurs migrants et l’utilisation comme variables dépendantes de mesures idéationnelles de la fécondité, celle-ci étant moindrement affectées par les facteurs perturbants le calendrier génésique. Nous nous sommes également attardé aux migrants de retour, afin d’évaluer si l’adaptation persiste, une fois que les migrants réintègrent leur communauté d’origine. Enfin, nous avons ajouté une mesure des réseaux sociaux en ville, afin de tester son effet sur l’adaptation. Dans le dernier article, nous adoptons une approche ‘translocale’, mesurant les réseaux sociaux aux lieux de destination et d’origine, pour explorer à l’aide de modèles de régression, leur association avec la fécondité idéationnelle des migrants actuels à Dakar. L’analyse accorde une attention particulière aux liens maintenus avec la communauté du lieu d’origine, leur composition et leur structure, afin d’explorer la socialisation, ou l’influence des valeurs et normes acquises avant la migration, une hypothèse souvent peu approfondie dans l’étude de la fécondité des migrants. Plutôt que de concevoir la socialisation comme l’hypothèse nulle, nous l’identifions comme un phénomène continuant après la migration et s’opérant simultanément à l’adaptation. Dans l’ensemble, nos résultats confirment l’importance du rôle des réseaux sociaux comme déterminants de la migration interne, même dans des contextes où elle est généralisée. La migration semble aussi se placer comme un important vecteur de diffusion de la fécondité, par son influence sur les croyances et préférences des migrants actuels et de retour. Cette association est toutefois modérée par les relations maintenues au lieu d’origine. Plus largement nos résultats soulèvent quelques (re)questionnements théoriques et insistent sur l’importance d’adopter une approche centrée sur les réseaux sociaux multilocalisés dans l’étude de la migration interne. Enfin, nos résultats ont des implications substantielles sur le rôle potentiel des migrations rurales-urbaines dans les transformations sociodémographiques des pays du Sud et mettent en évidence les contradictions qui existent entre certaines politiques visant à limiter les migrations rurales-urbaines et celles voulant réduire la fécondité. / Internal migration is the main form of human migration and is sensitive to environmental, economic, and political changes. In West Africa, environmental stresses and rapid population growth are pressuring rural populations dependent on rain-fed agriculture into diversifying their livelihood strategies; this diversification largely depends on migration to urban areas. This raises two questions: firstly, it is important to identify the factors that facilitate migration and therefore the adaptation of vulnerable households. Secondly, in countries undergoing demographic transition, the gaps in fertility rates between rural and urban areas are generally high, and migrations between these regions can contribute to the diffusion and homogenization of fertility. This raises the second question of whether and how internal migration, especially temporary migration, is associated with changes in fertility and contraceptive beliefs and preferences among migrants. Despite the relevance of these questions, we find that internal migration remains the “stepchild” in demography and in the broader study of migration; a position that does not reflect its importance. Thus, to contribute to our understanding of internal migration in the context of low- and middle-income countries, this thesis proposes three papers addressing the two issues previously discussed. To answer them, we focus on the concept of social networks; a central concept in the study of the determinants of migration and the diffusion of fertility, but which was poorly integrated into the study of internal migration and virtually absent from the study of migrant fertility. We combine longitudinal data from the Niakhar Health and Demographic Surveillance System (NHDSS), in Senegal, with data from the Niakhar Social Networks and Health Project (NSNHP). Together, these data allow for an in-depth analysis of migrant trajectories, their social networks, as well as their fertility and contraceptive beliefs and preferences. Our studies focus on a single village located in the NHDSS study area and exclusively examine migrants to the capital, Dakar. In the first paper, we use descriptive and multivariate tools from survival analysis to explore the association between exposure to migratory social capital in networks and the probability of a first migration to Dakar. Taking advantage of our rich data, we disaggregated migrant networks into ties to returning migrants, current migrants, and non-migrant residents of the destination to capture the heterogeneity of social capital related to migration. We also tested the influence of the strength of ties, subjectively measured, and structurally weak ties measured by second-order connections ("friend of a friend"). We thus revisit some of the main hypotheses of the theories of cumulative causation, social capital (in migration), and strength of ties. For example, while networks are considered to be of lesser importance for internal migration, especially in contexts where it is widespread, this study allows us to reconsider such findings by adopting a broader and more comprehensive definition of migrant social capital, including categories of ties that are generally underrepresented or absent in empirical literature, such as ties to non-migrants at the destination and weak ties. In the second paper, we examined how rural-urban migration is associated with lasting differences in fertility and contraceptive beliefs and preferences. Using methodological and conceptual innovations, we distinguished the effects of adaptation and selection on the fertility of temporary migrants in Dakar through linear regression models, despite using a cross-sectional approach. This was achieved by including a control group consisting of future migrants and using ideational measures of fertility as dependent variables, which are less influenced by factors affecting the fertility calendar. We also focused on returning migrants to evaluate whether adaptation persists after migrants reintegrate into their community of origin. Additionally, we included a measure of urban social networks to test its effect on adaptation. In the last paper, we adopt a 'translocal' approach by measuring networks at both destination and origin to explore the association between social networks and the fertility ideation of current migrants in Dakar. The analysis pays particular attention to ties maintained with the community of origin and their composition and structure to explore socialization, or the influence of values and norms acquired before migration, an often-underexplored hypothesis in the study of migrant fertility. Rather than conceiving of socialization as the null hypothesis, we identify it as a phenomenon that continues after migration and operates simultaneously and interactively with adaptation. Our results confirm the importance of the role of social networks as a determinant of internal migration, even in contexts where it is widespread. Internal migration also appears to be an important vector for the diffusion of fertility, through its influence on the beliefs and preferences of current and returned migrants. However, this association is moderated by the relationships maintained at the place of origin. More broadly, our results raise some theoretical questions and emphasize the importance of adopting a multilocal social networks approach in the study of internal migration. Finally, our results have substantial implications for the potential role of rural-urban migration in sociodemographic transformations in the LMICs, highlighting the contradictions between public policies aiming to limit rural-urban migration and those aiming to reduce fertility.

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This dissertation focuses on utopian versus dystopian perceptions of rural indigenous African societies with regard to the modern metropolis. Since the evolution of the modern metropolis, rural African societies have undergone significant and complex cultural changes that have dislodged rural cultures from being perceived in terms of the traditional notion of fixity. This has lead to the modern city being seen as either utopian or dystopian by rural African societies. The dissertation questions the “utopianess” of the modern metropolis with a special focus on its central idea of “progress”. Special attention is given to artists who explore this cultural phenomenon in the utopian–dystopian paradigm. The dissertation goes further to address the cultural impact of recent technological developments on rural and urban societies, the researcher’s perceptions of this impact and how this has contributed to the dynamics that characterise the cultures of contemporary rural and urban migrants / Art History, Visual Arts & Musicology / M.A. (Visual Arts)

This dissertation focuses on utopian versus dystopian perceptions of rural indigenous African societies with regard to the modern metropolis. Since the evolution of the modern metropolis, rural African societies have undergone significant and complex cultural changes that have dislodged rural cultures from being perceived in terms of the traditional notion of fixity. This has lead to the modern city being seen as either utopian or dystopian by rural African societies. The dissertation questions the “utopianess” of the modern metropolis with a special focus on its central idea of “progress”. Special attention is given to artists who explore this cultural phenomenon in the utopian–dystopian paradigm. The dissertation goes further to address the cultural impact of recent technological developments on rural and urban societies, the researcher’s perceptions of this impact and how this has contributed to the dynamics that characterise the cultures of contemporary rural and urban migrants / Art History, Visual Arts and Musicology / M.A. (Visual Arts)

Migration has always been part of South African history, both in the collective and as individuals. Under apartheid, children were separated from their fathers and sometimes mothers for long periods of time, and as a coping strategy, foster care was introduced. This trend is still noticeable as we continue to find both men and women moving from rural households in pursuit of employment. In countries where gender roles are still very inflexible and the mother’s main role is perceived as that of raising children and the father’s as providing for the family, migration of mothers is perceived as a much larger disruption in a child’s life than is the father’s absence. Drawing from critical feminist theory, which pays particular attention to issues of discrimination and oppression against women, my study aimed at exploring the perceptions Madelakufa community women have about migrant women labourers who leave their children. A qualitative approach was employed, and data were collected through conducting three focus groups. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology: Research Consultation)