Mental retardation (MR) is a very heterogeneous common neurodevelopmental disorder with a population prevalence of 2.5-3 %. The importance of genetic factors in the development of MR is high but in a significant number of cases the etiology remains unexplained. Recent studies using array methods pointed to frequent occurrence of copy number variants (CNVs) in patients with MR. Pathogenic CNVs were identified in 10-15 % patients with idiopathic MR and normal karyotype. The aim of our work was the analysis of genome-wide gains and losses of genetic material in a group of Czech patients with MR and a thorough bioinformatic analysis of the genetic changes identified aiming at the assessment of their clinical significance. We performed whole genome analysis using the HumanCytoSNP-12 BeadChips (Illumina) in 183 patients with idiopathic MR, normal karyotype and no FMR1 gene expansion. Data analysis was carried out using two independent programmes, GenomeStudio and QuantiSNP. The findings were subjected to two rounds of thorough bioinformatic analysis. Based on this analysis we classified the CNVs into 4 categories: pathogenic CNVs, probably pathogenic CNVs, CNVs with uncertain clinical significance and benign CNVs. With the exception of the benign variants, all CNVs were confirmed using an independent laboratory...

In chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), the presence of multiple subsets expressing ‘stereotyped’ B-cell receptors (BCRs) has implicated antigen(s) in leukemogenesis. These stereotyped subsets display similar immunoglobulin (IG) gene usage, almost identical complementarity determining region 3’s and may share clinical features. For instance, subsets #1 (IGHV1/5/7/IGKV1-39) and #2 (IGHV3-21/IGLV3-21) have inferior outcome compared to non-subset patients, whereas subset #4 (IGHV4-34/IGKV2-30) display a favourable prognosis. The aim of this thesis was to investigate genomic aberrations, gene expression patterns and methylation profiles in stereotyped subsets and compare epigenetic profiles in CLL and mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). In paper I, we investigated genomic aberrations in subsets #2, #4 and #16 and in non-stereotyped samples (n=101) using high-density 250K SNP arrays. Subset #2 and non-subset #2 IGHV3-21 cases displayed a higher frequency of aberrations than subset #4 cases. The high incidence of del(11q) in both subset #2/non-subset #2 may reflect the adverse survival reported for IGHV3-21 patients. In contrast, the lower frequency of genetic events and lack of poor-prognostic aberrations in subset #4 may partially explain their indolent disease. In paper II, we analysed the global RNA expression in subset #4, #16 and non-subset IGHV4-34 CLL patients (n=25). Subsets #4 and 16 showed distinct gene expression profiles, where genes involved in cell regulatory pathways were significantly lower expressed in subset #4, in line with their low-proliferative disease. In paper III, a genome-wide methylation array was applied to investigate methylation profiles in subsets #1, #2 and #4 (n=39). We identified differential methylation patterns for all subsets and found affected genes to be involved in e.g. apoptosis and therapy resistance. When performing functional annotation, a clear enrichment of genes involved in adaptive immunity was observed. These genes were preferentially methylated in subset #1 when compared to either subset #2 or #4, possibly due to different antigen responses. In paper IV, the genome-wide methylation profiles for 30 CLL and 20 MCL patients were investigated. Distinct methylation profiles were observed, where MCL displayed a more homogeneous profile. Homeobox transcription factor genes showed a higher degree of methylation in MCL, while apoptosis-related genes and proliferation-associated genes were methylated in CLL. In summary, this thesis demonstrates that stereotyped CLL subsets display differences in gene expression profiles, genetic aberrations and methylation patterns, underscoring the functional relevance of subgrouping according to BCR stereotypy. The distinct methylation profiles of CLL and MCL suggests that different epigenetic mechanisms are involved in the pathogenesis of these B-cell malignancies.

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) both belong to the group of mature B-cell malignancies. However, MCL is typically clinically aggressive while the clinical course of CLL varies. CLL can be divided into prognostic subgroups based on IGHV mutational status and into multiple subsets based on closely homologous (stereotyped) B-cell receptors. In paper I we investigated 31 MCL cases using high-density 250K single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays and gene expression arrays. Although most copy-number aberrations (CNAs) were previously reported in MCL, a novel deletion was identified at 20q (16%) containing the candidate tumor suppressor gene ZFP64. A high proliferation gene expression signature was associated with poor prognosis, large CNAs, 7p gains and 9q losses. Losses at 1p/8p/13q/17p were associated with increased genomic complexity. In paper II we sequenced exons 4 to 8 of the TP53 gene in 119 MCL cases. 17p copy-number status was known from previous studies or determined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. TP53 mutations were detected in 14% of cases and were strongly associated with poor survival while 17p deletions were more common (32%) but did not predict survival. In papers III and IV we applied high-resolution genomic 27K methylation arrays to 20 MCL and 39 CLL samples. In paper III MCL displayed a homogenous methylation profile without correlation with the proliferation signature whereas MCL was clearly separated from CLL. Gene ontology analysis revealed enrichment of developmental genes, in particular homeobox transcription factor genes, among targets methylated in MCL. In paper IV we compared three different stereotyped CLL subsets: #1 (IGHV unmutated), #2 (IGHV3-21) and #4 (IGHV mutated). Many genes were differentially methylated between each two subsets and immune response genes (e.g. CD80 and CD86) were enriched among genes methylated in subset #1 but not in subsets #2/#4. In summary, CNAs were frequent and not random in MCL. Specific CNAs correlated with a high proliferation gene expression signature or genomic complexity. TP53 mutations predicted short survival whereas 17p deletions did not. A high proliferation signature was not associated with differential DNA methylation in MCL, which demonstrated a homogeneous methylation pattern. In contrast, genomic methylation patterns differed between MCL and CLL and between stereotyped CLL subsets.

Des études d'associations pangénomiques ont démontré une relation entre le taux plasmatique de la vitamine B12 et le polymorphisme du gène FUT2 (fucosyltransferase 2). Dans des modèles expérimentaux, le statut sécréteur pour FUT2 a été impliqué dans la susceptibilité à l'infection par Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). Nous avons évalué l'influence du polymorphisme FUT2 461 G>A sur les marqueurs du métabolisme des monocarbones dans deux populations ambulatoires en Europe et en Afrique de l'Ouest ainsi que la possible association entre l'infection par H. pylori et le polymorphisme de FUT2. Nous avons mis en évidence une influence de FUT2 461 G>A sur le taux plasmatique de la vitamine B12 mais n'avons pas retrouvé d'influence du statut sérologique pour H. pylori sur cette association, du moins chez les sujets ambulatoires en Europe et en Afrique de l'Ouest. L'hyperhomocystéinémie est un marqueur de carence en donneurs de méthyle. Plusieurs travaux ont évalué le taux plasmatique de l'homocystéine au cours des maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l'intestin (MICI) et ont abouti à des résultats mitigés. Par ailleurs, l'ampleur de l'association entre le métabolisme de l'homocystéine et les MICI reste méconnue. Nous avons réalisé une méta-analyse afin : (i) d'évaluer l'association entre le métabolisme de l'homocystéine et les MICI et (ii) d'étudier le risque de thrombose lié à l'hyperhomocystéinémie au cours des MICI. Le risque d'hyperhomocystéinémie était significativement plus élevé chez les patients avec une MICI en comparaison aux sujets contrôles. L'évaluation du risque de thrombose associé à l'hyperhomocystéinémie au cours des MICI requiert des études complémentaires. Un statut carencé en folates était associé à un impact plus fort du polymorphisme MTHFR C677T sur le risque primaire de MICI. L'hyperhomocystéinémie et plusieurs polymorphismes sur les gènes du métabolisme des monocarbones sont associés au risque primaire et à la sévérité de la maladie de Crohn (MC). L'hyperhomocystéinémie augmente l'activité de la superoxyde dismutase (SOD), un marqueur fiable et validé du stress oxydatif. A l'aide d'un SNP array Illumina exhaustif du métabolisme des monocarbones, nous avons (i) étudié les déterminants génétiques (single nucleotide polymorphisms, SNPs) associés au taux plasmatique de l'homocystéine et de la SOD chez des patients suivis pour une MC et (ii) recherché les SNPs associés à l'âge du diagnostic de la MC. Deux SNPs étaient indépendamment associés au taux plasmatique de l'homocystéine (MTHFR, AHCY). Cinq SNPs étaient indépendamment associés au taux plasmatique de la SOD. Parmi ces cinq SNPs, trois sont liés à la vitamine B12 (FUT2, CUBN, et TCN2), un aux folates (GGH), et un dernier à la synthèse cellulaire de l'homocystéine (AHCY). Par ailleurs, nous avons mis en évidence deux SNPs associés à un âge précoce du diagnostic de la MC (CHDH, ABCB1). / Genome wide association studies demonstrated an association between plasma vitamin B12 and FUT2 (fucosyltransferase 2). It has been suggested that the association between FUT2 and low plasma vitamin B12 level may be the consequence of an increased susceptibility to Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection. We evaluated the association between FUT2 461G>A polymorphism and vitamin B12 and investigated whether the influence of FUT2 on H. pylori serology is part of the mechanisms that underlie this association, in two populations from Europe and West Africa. In this study we confirmed the influence of FUT2 461 G>A polymorphism on plasma vitamin B12 level and found no influence of H. pylori serological status on this association, at least in ambulatory subjects from Europe and West Africa. The magnitude of the association between homocysteine metabolism and inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is unknown while the association between hyperhomocysteinemia and thrombosis remains controversial in IBD. We conducted a systematic review of the literature and performed a meta-analysis to examine these issues. The risk of hyperhomocysteinemia is significantly higher in IBD patients when compared to controls. The risk assessment of hyperhomocysteinemia-related thrombosis in IBD requires further investigation. Deficient folate status is associated with a higher impact of MTHFR C677T polymorphism on IBD risk. Hyperhomocysteinemia and several gene variants of one-carbon metabolism are associated with the occurrence and severity of Crohn's disease (CD). Hyperhomocysteinemia results in part from methyl donors deficiency - which is frequent in patients with CD - and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), a validated and reliable marker of oxidative stress. We designed a 384-plex GoldenGate oligo pool assay for the comprehensive one-carbon metabolism genotyping using Illumina platform. The aims of this study were (i) to assess genetic determinants of plasma homocysteine and superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in patients with IBD and (ii) to look for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with age at CD onset. Two SNPs were associated with plasma homocysteine level (MTHFR, AHCY). Five SNPs were independently associated with plasma SOD level. Of these five SNPs, three are related to vitamin B12 (FUT2, CUBN, and TCN2), one is related to folate (GGH), and the last one to homocysteine (AHCY). In addition, we identified two SNPs associated with early CD onset (CHDH, ABCB1)

Recent research demonstrated that besides a role in sex determination and male fertility, the Y chromosome is involved in additional functions including prostate cancer, sex-specific effects on the brain and behaviour, graft-versus-host disease, nociception, aggression and autoimmune diseases. The results presented in this thesis include an analysis of sex-biased genes encoded on the X and Y chromosomes of rodents. Expression data from six different somatic tissues was analyzed and we found that the X chromosome is enriched in female biased genes and depleted of male biased ones. The second study described copy number variation (CNV) patterns in a world-wide collection of human Y chromosome samples. Contrary to expectations, duplications and not deletions were the most frequent variations. We also discovered novel CNV patterns of which some were significantly overrepresented in specific haplogroups. A substantial part of the thesis focuses on analysis of spatial expression of two Y-encoded brain-specific genes, namely PCDH11Y and NLGN4Y. The perhaps most surprising discovery was the observation that X and Y transcripts of both gene pairs are mostly expressed in different cells in human spinal cord and medulla oblongata. Also, we detected spatial expression differences for the PCDH11X gene in spinal cord. The main focus of the spatial investigations was to uncover genetically coded sexual differences in expression during early development of human central nervous system (CNS). Also, investigations of the expression profiles for 13 X and Y homolog gene pairs in human CNS, adult brain, testes and still-born chimpanzee brain samples were included. Contrary to previous studies, we found only three X-encoded genes from the 13 X/Y homologous gene pairs studied that exhibit female-bias. We also describe six novel non-coding RNAs encoded in the human MSY, some of which are polyadenylated and with conserved expression in chimpanzee brain. The description of dimorphic cellular expression patterns of X- and Y-linked genes should boost the interest in the human specific gene PCDH11Y, and draw attention to other Y-encoded genes expressed in the brain during development. This may help to elucidate the role of the Y chromosome in sex differences during early CNS development in humans. / <p>chinese, finnish, norwegian, schizophrenia, bipolar, bipolar disorder, msy, male specific region Y, PAR1, PAR2, pseudoautosomal, male-biased, female-biased, male biased, female biased, ashkenazi population, structure, variants, YHRD, Elena Jazin, Björn Reinius, Per Ahlberg, brain, hjärna, CNS, central nervous system, IR2, inverted repeat 2, isodicentric, genetics, genetik, padlock, rolling circle, amplification, PCR, sY1191, sY1291, STS, DDX3Y, DAZ, AZFa, AZFb, AZFc, AZF, Repping, haplogroup J, rearrangements, DE-M145, I-M170, E-M96, Q-M242, R-M207, O-M175, G-M201, D-M174, C-M130, NO-M214, N-M231, poland</p>