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Although careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics have expanded in the United States, science literacy skills for K-12 students have declined from 2001 to 2011. Limited research has been conducted on the impact of science enrichment programs on the science literacy skills of K-12 students, particularly in marine science. The purpose of this study was to describe the impact of a marine science summer enrichment camp located in the eastern region of the United States on the ocean literacy skills of middle school students who participated in this camp. Weimar's learner centered teaching approach and the definition and principles of ocean literacy formed the conceptual framework. The central research question focused on how a marine science summer enrichment camp impacted the ocean literacy skills of middle grade students. A single case study research design was used with ten participants including 3 camp teachers, four students, and 3 parents of Grade 6-8 students who participated this camp in 2016. Data were collected from multiple sources including individual interviews of camp teachers, students, and parents, as well as camp documents and archival records. A constant comparative method was used to construct categories, determine emergent themes and discrepant data. Results indicated that the marine science camp positively impacted the ocean literacy skills of middle school students through an emphasis on a learner centered instructional approach. The findings of this study may provide a positive social impact by demonstrating active science literacy instructional strategies for teachers which can motivate students to continue studies in science and science related fields.

Science curriculum and pedagogy are at the center of a centuries-long debate concerning the appropriate relationship of faith and science. The difficulties that science educators face seem to be based in misinformation about the historical roots of this conflict. To address that conflict, the goals of this research were to separate myth from reality and to provide a necessary context to the current tensions that are disrupting science pedagogy and curriculum content within American public schools. Working within a theoretical framework of historical literacy, this qualitative, historical analysis was a comprehensive examination of the relationship of faith and science from ancient times through the Renascence to the emergence and development of Darwinism. The historical approach methodology was utilized as a means to document the systematic examination of past events, in order to illuminate and interpret the meaning of those events. The historical record revealed that science and religion are not necessarily incompatible and that the early Christian religion provided a fertile environment in which modern science could emerge. Also noted were many instances where the record was inconsistent with what educators have commonly taught as historical fact. Finally, the complex sources of tension between modern fundamentalist Christianity and Darwinism, which has appeared as a flashpoint in public discourse within science education, were examined in depth. Based on this analysis, the study includes recommendations for educators in their approach to addressing these challenges and teaching science. This analysis can produce positive social change for educators and their students, as this information is advanced as a means to enhance historical literacy among educators and their students.

Addressing the needs of developmental math students has been one of the most challenging problems in higher education. Administrators at a private university were concerned about poor academic performance of math-deficient students and sought to identify factors that influenced students' successful progression from developmental to college-level coursework. The purpose of this retrospective prediction study was to determine which of 7 variables (enrollment in a college success course, math placement results, frequency of use of the developmental resource center, source of tuition payment, student's age, gender, and race/ethnicity) would be predictive of success in developmental math as defined by a final course grade of C or higher. Astin's theory of student involvement and Tinto's theory of student retention formed the theoretical framework for this investigation of 557 first-year students who entered the university during Fall 2013 and Fall 2014. Binary logistic regression analysis was performed. Successful completion of the university's college success course as well as enrollment in introductory/intermediate algebra or intermediate algebra were significant predictors of success in remedial math courses. In addition, the lower the level of developmental math a student was placed in and engaged with, the higher the probability of success in the course. These findings were used to create a policy recommendation for a prescriptive means of ensuring students' early enrollment in developmental math courses and engagement with university resources, which may help students overcome barriers to success in developmental math and lead to positive social change for both the students and university through higher retention and graduation rates.

Even though a school in Southern Virginia had been utilizing a variety of manipulatives, calculators, and computers to transition students through the concrete-representational-abstract (CRA) sequence; students did not meet the state proficiency requirement on the standardized math assessment. A qualitative descriptive case study design, grounded in Bruner's learning theory on the modes of representation, was utilized to explore fifth-grade teachers' perceptions of their math instructional practices. The central question was about 5th-grade teachers' perceptions of utilizing a wide variety of manipulatives, calculators, and computers to transition students from concrete understandings to pictorial representations before they embark upon abstract concepts. Data were collected through observations, interviews, and archival data. The data were analyzed through thematic analysis and coded through the constant comparison approach. The data collection revealed that the 4 participants were utilizing a wide variety of manipulatives, calculators, and computers to transition students through the CRA sequence; however, the teachers were unable to teach students to a level of mastery due to various barriers. The study's findings suggest that the research site would benefit from a three-day professional development plan, created to address the lack of teaching to mastery. This study will contribute to positive social change because it addressed the math achievement gap that is widening in America. This study's findings could benefit local, district, and state stakeholders as the project addresses teaching students to the appropriate cognitive levels to prepare for lifelong learning in mathematics, as well as for standardized assessments.

Public education has options with regard to educational settings and structures. States and school districts may select varying lengths for the school year, lengths for the school day, and lengths for individual class periods. In Utah, one measure of students' achievement is scores on the State's end-of-level criterion-referenced test (CRT) for Algebra I. Additionally, an option regarding educational structures is the schedule type used to deliver Algebra I classes. This study examined the relationship between student achievement as measured by Algebra I CRT scores, and the schedule type used to deliver Algebra I classes. The schedule types compared were the traditional daily schedule, trimester 3/3 schedule, trimester 2/3 schedule, and the block A/B schedule. This study sought to answer two research questions: (1) What is the relationship between mathematics instructional schedule type and student scores on Utah's CRT for Algebra I, for all students? and (2) What is the relationship between mathematics instructional schedule type and student scores on Utah's CRT for Algebra I, by individual grade levels? Data were obtained from the Utah State Office of Education and included the scores for 50,000 Utah students, from over 300 different schools, who took the identical Algebra I CRT at the end of the 2010-2011 school year. Data were also obtained from each school district to determine the schedule type of each participating student. Both a multinomial logistic regression analysis and a t-test analysis were conducted to determine relationships between Algebra I CRT scores and schedule types. The results indicated significant differences in student achievement based on the schedule type overall and for individual grade levels. Generally, the earlier the grade level the higher the CRT score. Within individual grade levels, there were both statistically significant and nonsignificant differences. The schedule types that generally score the highest (trimester 3/3 and traditional) had more time in the mathematics classroom and the students' mathematics class met daily. The results suggest the value of daily time spent in the mathematics classroom and may assist educators when considering options available to foster student achievement.

The purpose of this phenomenological study was to describe what experiences, attitudes, and learning strategies developmental mathematics students believed contributed to their failure to gain basic math skill proficiency in the past and what experiences, attitudes, and learning strategies these students now believed were most likely to enhance the successful learning of basic math skills. To gain an understanding of the lived experiences of successful developmental mathematics students who were previously unsuccessful, structured, open-ended interviews were conducted, classroom observations were made, and formative and summative assessments for the students were collected. Fourteen students from a western 4-year college were selected purposefully based on instructor recommendations and preliminary survey results. The students, who were eight males and six females, ranged in age from 19 to 51. Seven were considered traditional students and seven nontraditional. Based on the data analysis, five prevalent themes emerged: turning point, attitude, motivation, learning environment, and learning strategies. Motivation was the most common reason given as the difference between being unsuccessful and successful math skill development. Underlying their motivation were the students' own beliefs. In the unsuccessful period, every student had the fixed mindset of not being capable of learning mathematics. When successful, the students exhibited a growth mindset, believing that if they exerted time and effort, they would be able to learn. This mindset made the difference in their motivation and attitude. Previously they hated mathematics. When successful, students actually enjoyed learning mathematics and expressed confidence that they would be successful in the subsequent course. When unsuccessful, students were field dependent. Most were children or adolescents. They had no control over their learning environment or selection of learning resources. The predominant coping strategy was one of avoidance. When successful, students were more field independent. They could choose their teachers and actively seek learning resources. When asked what changes in their K-12 experience would have helped them be more successful, the students paradoxically suggested that a close monitoring of their progress might have made a difference. However, during their unsuccessful period, students did everything they could to avoid being labeled as needing help.

Citizen science projects present a distinctive opportunity for professional and volunteer scientists to coordinate their efforts to gather unique sets of data that can benefit the scientific and local communities. These projects are assumed to be an effective educational tool to teach nature of science (NOS) to participants (Brossard, Lewenstein, Bonney, 2005). This case study evaluates the effectiveness of participation in a citizen science project as a way to learn about NOS. Through enhancement of the Tryon Creek Owl Monitoring Project the researcher reviewed the characteristics of a citizen science project that were thought to be necessary to impact the volunteers' knowledge of NOS. The study also explored the benefits and limitations to organizing the citizen science protect using the principles of action research. Analysis of participants' knowledge and the effectiveness of active research theory, was evaluated through pre- and post- questionnaires and interviews. Although volunteers were able to explore the core themes of NOS through actively engaging in the scientific process, they did not experience a statistically significant change in their demonstration of understanding. For a multitude of reasons, participants had a positive experience with the presence of an embedded researcher within the project. This case study supports the use of active research as a guide to ensure that within each project the needs of both the scientific community and the volunteer scientists are met.

Elementary education has become increasingly divided into subjects and focused on the demand for high math and reading scores. Consequently, teachers spend less time devoted to science and art instruction. However, teaching art and science is crucial to developing creative and rational thinking, especially for observation and questioning skills. In this study, third grade students attending an urban school in Portland, Oregon received instruction of an art strategy using observational and quantifying drawing techniques. This study examines, "Will an art strategy observing the local environment help students make observations and ask questions?" and "In what ways are student learning and perspectives of science affected by the art strategy?" The independent variable is the art strategy developed for this study. There are three dependent variables: quality of student observations, quality of questions, and themes on student learning and perspectives of science. I predicted students would develop strong observation and questioning skills and that students would find the strategy useful or have an increased interest in science. The art scores were high for relevance and detail, but not for text. There were significant correlations between art scores and questions. Interviews revealed three themes: observations create questions, drawing is helpful and challenging, and students connected to science. By examining science through art, students were engaged and created strong observations and questions. Teachers need to balance unstructured drawing time with scaffolding for optimal results. This study provides an integrated science and art strategy that teachers can use outdoors or adapt for the classroom.

Formative assessment probes, known as Keeley probes, are one tool teachers use to reveal students' scientific misconceptions, so that they can move them closer to conceptual understanding. The purpose of this research was to document how four elementary school teachers used formative assessment probes to plan and adapt instruction to improve student learning. Specifically: How did teachers choose appropriate probes? What learning goals did teachers hope to address by using the probe?? What instructional sequences did teachers envision when planning to use a probe? What did teachers notice when analyzing student data from a probe? How did teachers use the information to modify their instructional practice? This exploratory study addresses key issues by exploring through qualitative methods how four elementary teachers used Keeley formative assessment probes in the classroom through a series of individual and group interviews. The results, reported as case studies and themes, indicate that Keeley probes may be used to help teachers strengthen their pedagogical content knowledge and as an anchor for classroom discussions. Teachers reported that students were highly engaged when considering Keeley probing questions. Teachers in this study had questions about how to analyze data collected through formative assessment, and what instructional steps they needed to take to address misconceptions. The central finding of the study is that a teacher's subject-area knowledge as well as the ability to identify students' misconceptions and make instructional decisions based on those ideas, both elements of pedagogical content knowledge, play a key role in how effectively teachers use Keeley formative assessment probes towards improving learning. Ultimately, this study showed that while the use of Keeley probes did improve opportunities for students to deepen scientific understanding, a gap still exists between the potential of formative assessment and the practical work of integrating ongoing formative assessment to improve teaching and learning. This exploratory study underlines the need for a new approach in professional development for elementary science teachers, and sheds light on what happens when teachers try Keeley probes, a promising formative assessment tool and strategy, in the real world of the classroom.