Les facteurs humains figurent parmi les causes originelles de trop nombreux accidents, dans les transports, l'industrie ou encore dans les parcours de soins. Dans ces contextes sociotechniques complexes et dynamiques, le risque de survenue d'incidents est permanent. La formation des équipes interprofessionnelles à la gestion des risques dans un environnement reproduisant fidèlement le contexte professionnel est un enjeu majeur. La motivation de cette thèse est de proposer un environnement virtuel multi-joueurs destiné à la formation à la gestion des risques liés à des défauts de communication ou de prises de décision. Pour cela, une méthode de création de scénarios interactifs destinés à la formation à la gestion des risques a été présentée. Un système de communication, un système collaboratif de prise de décision et un modèle de description d'objectifs complexes composés d'actions, de communications et de décisions sont présentés. L'environnement multi-joueurs interactif s'appuie sur cet ensemble cohérent. Ces systèmes et modèles proposés octroient une relative liberté aux équipes pour gérer la situation professionnelle présentée au sein de l'environnement virtuel. Ils permettent aussi le contrôle de la situation pédagogique dans son ensemble. Une méthode à forte valeur d'innovation a aussi été proposée pour structurer le débriefing d'une formation à la gestion des risques. Cela permet notamment d'automatiser la production de débriefing personnalisé, individuel et collectif à l'issu des séances de formation. / Many accidents in transport, industry or healthcare result from a causal chain of events where inadvertent human errors have not been corrected in time. In such socio-technical and dynamic systems where complexity and unpredictability widespread, training teams to risk management in real-life like situations is crucial. This thesis aims to provide a virtual multi-player environment designed for inter-professional team training to risk management. To that end, a method to design risk management interactive and controlled scenario has been described. A communication system, a group decision making system and a team tracing model have been created. They all together enable the virtual team to be free enough to manage the educational situations. These coherent and innovative environment allows us to control the team activity and automate the edition of a personalized, individual and corporate debriefing at the end of a team training session.

Le serious game d'apprentissage utilisé dans le monde professionnel se doit de lier la pratique du jeu à la pratique métier. Cet enjeu concerne les concepteurs, ainsi que les responsables de formation ou responsables des ressources humaines, tous intéressés par la transmission ou l'évaluation des compétences. Mais alors que les serious games simulant des relations interpersonnelles convoquent les notions de fiction, d'immersion, de réalisme ou encore de référentialité, ils réactivent des problématiques rencontrées par le cinéma documentaire. Thèse défendue : cette thèse propose que les théories et pratiques du cinéma documentaire puissent servir l'intention pédagogique du concepteur de serious game pour favoriser l'acquisition de nouvelles compétences chez l'utilisateur. Objectifs : sur le plan cognitif, l'objectif est d'explorer l'apprentissage lié à la confrontation de points de vue divergents (conflit sociocognitif), par l'intermédiaire d'un serious game monojoueur. L'objectif communicationnel associé est d'expliquer la construction d'un interlocuteur, fictif ou réel, capable d'opposer un point de vue à l'utilisateur. Pour répondre à ces objectifs, le cheminement historique et socioculturel du cinéma documentaire renseignera différentes formes discursives et relationnelles du serious game. Méthode : 4 configurations du même serious game EHPAD ont été expérimentées dans un quasi-plan d'expérience sur une période de 5 mois, auprès de 250 utilisateurs issus de 10 établissements médicaux. Notre enquête s'est appuyée sur des questionnaires auto administrés et l’enregistrement de traces d'activités. Aux traitements statistiques qui découlent de l’enquête s'ajoutent 5 focus groups, 3 entretiens individuels et des rapports d'observation. Principaux résultats : premièrement, une série de transpositions théoriques soutient l'analogie entre serious game et cinéma documentaire. Sur le plan empirique, notre enquête confirme cette analogie en soulignant que l'utilisation du serious game en contexte professionnel est propice à l'enclenchement d'une lecture documentarisante. Deuxièmement, la comparaison des configurations du jeu EHPAD démontre l'influence significative de deux figures narratives (mise en abyme et métalepse) sur l'accroissement de la documentarité et de la confrontation des points de vue. Au final, notre recherche aboutit à une "grammaire narrato-cognitive" permettant aux concepteurs de passer d'une écriture documentée, à une écriture documentaire : la compétence visée n'est plus cantonnée dans une fiction, mais étendue de manière réflexive aux énonciateurs réels. / Serious games for learning, used in the professional world, link both game and work practices. This issue concerns designers as well as training managers and human resources managers, all interested in transferring and evaluating professional skills. But serious games, simulating interpersonal relationships through notions of fiction, immersion, realism or referentiality, are also reactivating some problems encountered by documentary films. Thesis defended: This thesis suggests that the theory and practice of documentary cinema can serve the educational intent of the designer of serious game to facilitate the acquisition of new skills by the user. Objectives: On the cognitive level, the purpose is to explore the learning related to confrontation of viewpoints (sociocognitive conflict) through serious game on a single-player mode. The associated communicative purpose is to explain the construction of an interlocutor, a fictitious or a real one, who is able to oppose his point of view to the user. In order to meet these objectives, the sociocultural and historical processes of documentary filmmaking will advise different discursive and relational forms of the serious game. Method: 4 configurations of the same serious game EHPAD were tested in a quasi-experimental plan over a period of 5 months, with 250 users from 10 medical institutions. Our investigation is based on self-administered questionnaires and on an activity tracking system. To the statistical treatment arisen from the investigation, 5 focus groups, 3 individual interviews and observational reports are added. Main results: First, a series of theoretical transpositions supports the analogy between serious games and documentary filmmaking. On the empirical side, our investigation confirms this analogy by pointing out that the use of serious games in a professional context is favorable to engage a documentarizing reading. Second, the comparison between the 4 configurations of the game EHPAD demonstrates the significant influence of two narrative figures (mise en abyme and metalepsis) on the increase of "documentarity" and viewpoints confrontation. Finally, our research leads to a "narrato-cognitive grammar" allowing designers to move from a documented to a documentary writing: the targeted competency is no longer confined to fiction but extended by reflexivity to the real enunciators.

abstract: This dissertation describes Space Vector 1 and Space Vector 2, two video games that introduce Newtonian mechanics concepts. Space Vector 1 is a side-scrolling game, in which players choose to drop bombs or supplies. Players had to identify if the physics was correct during a mission, or they had to plot the trajectory of a falling object, which was then simulated. In Space Vector 2, players were given velocity and acceleration values and had to plot the trajectory of a spaceship across a grid, or players were given a trajectory of a spaceship on a grid and had to program the velocity and acceleration values to produce the trajectory. Space Vector 1 was evaluated with 65 college undergraduates. Space Vector 2 was evaluated with 18 high school students. All participants were given a subset of the Force Concept Inventory, a standard assessment tool in physics education, as a pretest and posttest. Space Vector 1 was evaluated with a single group pretest-posttest design. Space Vector 2 was evaluated with a 2 x 2 ANOVA, where the factors were game mechanic (prediction mechanic or programming mechanic) and bonus questions (bonus question after a mission or no bonus question). Bayesian statistical methods were used for the data analysis. The best estimate for the average change in test scores for Space Vector 1 was a score gain of 1.042 (95% Highest Density Interval (HDI) [0.613, 1.487]) with an effect size of 0.611 (95% HDI [0.327, 0.937]). The best estimate for the grand mean of change scores in Space Vector 2 was an increase of 0.78 (95% HDI [-0.3, 1.85]) with an effect size of 0.379 (95% HDI [-0.112, 0.905]). The prediction/no bonus question version produced the largest change in score, where the best estimate for the mean change score was an increase of 1.2. The estimation intervals for the Space Vector 2 results were wide, and all included zero as a credible value. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Educational Technology 2014

This study examines how serious games may be designed and developed to contain engaging working memory (WM) training exercises. Video games have a high potential as WM exercise environment for children with ADHD, but it is still difficult to create a long-term training solution due to their problem to retain attention. This thesis aims for better understanding of ADHD children’s motivation to be trained by describing the creation of a game prototype that was designed with the help from WM experts, workshops with designers working on previous prototypes of the same game, guidance from medical doctors specialized on ADHD, and by using a methodical formal game design approach along with frequent user tests. The results of the presented prototype showed an increase in play-time and in retention of player’s attention over time in comparison to the previous prototype. The study concludes how game design resonated with the target audience.

Research is limited on the role game-based training has on the engagement of learners. The following study was conducted to further advance research on engagement and game-based training in businesses by studying the engagement of travel agents in the game. Engagement is the manner in which a learner's cognitive and motor skills are motivated when participating in a game. Engaged learners will often push through challenging tasks and will concentrate on improving their skills due to their excitement about playing. The present study examined the engagement of travel agents as they played a serious game. The serious game, Adventures Game, was designed to provide a fun and memorable format for learning for travel agents who sell cruise tickets for a cruise line. The focus of this study was to examine the relationship between engagement (as measured by total number of minutes playing the game) and knowledge attainment (as measured by total number of fun points) of travel agents while playing a serious game. In addition, to understand the relationship between engagement and total cruise sales (as measured by total number of cabins sold). Thus, this nonexperimental study investigated the relationship between engagement and knowledge attainment. A combination of linear regression analyses and correlations were used to examine this relationship. The sample consisted of travel agents (N = 309) who played the serious game. The study focused on data which ranged from January 1, 2012 until December 31, 2014. The regression results supported both hypotheses proposed in this study. A strong, positive and statistically significant relationship between engagement and knowledge attainment was found. In addition, a modest, positive and statistically significant relationship between engagement and total cabin sales was found. Based on these results, further analysis was conducted, leading to finding a statistically significant relationship between knowledge attainment and total cabin sales as well. Future research should be designed to test whether the modest link between engagement and total cabin sales is mediated by knowledge attainment. The implications of the findings demonstrate theoretical, empirical and practical relevance, particularly as it is linked to adults learning optimally in computer-mediated, workplace settings.

In this thesis, we propose a Serious Game (SG) for children with the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) that builds on the concept of LEGO®-Based Therapy that is aimed at improving social and cognitive skills. The proposed SG is composed of building blocks augmented with electronic modules that connect to a computing device that provides visual feedback. We investigate the effects of using the proposed computer SG by comparing it to a non-computer block-game during two empirical studies, one following an unstructured play approach and a second one with structured play by assigning roles to the players. For the first study, the proposed system showed an improvement in social interaction, collaborative play and exercise performance, as well as a decrease in solitary play. For the second study, the proposed system showed an improvement in social interaction, positive vocalizations and exploratory behavior. There was also a marked preference towards the proposed game. Furthermore, we perceived a decrease on the assistance needed when using the proposed system during both studies. Our results suggest that the proposed system can be a useful play therapy tool aimed for young children with ASD.

La prise en charge des personnes âgées présentant une maladie neurodégénérative aboutissant à des troubles cognitifs et une démence représente un enjeu majeur de santé. Il est important de concevoir des outils pour aider les cliniciens à mieux prendre en charge les patients par la stimulation. L’Environnement Enrichi – favorisant les stimulations cognitives, physiques et sociales dans un contexte émotionnel positif – apparait être une puissante stratégie non-médicamenteuse pour réduire ou retarder les évolutions des processus neurodégénératifs et les pertes cognitives. Dans cette approche, l’hypothèse de l’Enrichissement Cognitif stipule que les comportements qu’adopte un individu tout au long de sa vie vont avoir un impact sur le fonctionnement de son cerveau, même à l’âge avancé. C’est dans cette idée que les Jeux Vidéo et les Serious Games à activité physique sont utilisés. X-Torp est un Serious Game d’action conçu pour être accessible et stimulant pour les sujets âgés en bonne santé et présentant une Maladie Neurodégénérative due à un trouble cognitif léger ou une démence de type Alzheimer. Le joueur incarne un sous-marin et est plongé dans un monde quasi maritime où seules quelques îles sont en surface. Il doit ainsi évoluer dans un scénario pour monter en grade à travers la réalisation de missions et d’affrontements en mer. X-Torp est jouable sur Microsoft® Kinect™ pour PC. L’objectif de cette thèse est de présenter l’ensemble des travaux scientifiques entrepris pour (1) concevoir une première version du jeu ; (2) la tester chez les populations cibles et (3) concevoir en conséquence une seconde version commercialisable / The care of elderly people affected by neurodegenerative diseases leading to cognitive impairment and dementia represents a major challenge in the healthcare domain. It is important to design tools that can help clinicians to better treat these patients through stimulation. Enriched Environments - which favor cognitive and physical stimulations in a positive emotional context – look like a powerful non-pharmacological strategy to reduce or delay the evolution of neurodegenerative processes, and the consequent cognitive disorders. Based on this approach, the Enriched Environment hypothesis states that the behavior of an individual during the lifetime, even during old age, affect his brain functioning. Video Games and Serious Games implying physical activity are used in this context. X-Torp is an action Serious Game conceived to be usable and stimulating for healthy elderly people and people with neurodegenerative disorders leading to Mild Cognitive Impairment or to Alzheimer’s’ dementia. The player takes the command of a submarine and is immersed in a sea-world where only a few islands appear on the surface. The player needs to advance in the game scenario to improve his grade position accomplishing missions and battling over the sea. X-Torp is played with Microsoft® Kinect™ for PC. The aim of this thesis is to present the scientific work undergone to (1) conceive and design the first game version; (2) test this version on the target populations, and (3) based on the results, design a second game version ready to be commercialized

Airway travel is an easy and accessible form of transportation that allows billions of people to travel the world each year. Many passengers are however not perfectly comfortable on flights, with stressful flight-related anxieties or phobias being common. These issues are all sources of various negative emotions and can be difficult to circumvent or tone down when on long flights. Previous research has shown that controlled breathing techniques and distraction from the situation are good approaches when dealing with the body's physiological stress responses, but both techniques have seldom been used in conjunction.    This thesis is targeting In-Flight Entertainment (IFE) systems used onboard modern aeroplanes to provide passengers with a serious game for alleviating stressful emotions during flights. The study aims to determine whether guided breathing combined with gameplay distraction can help passengers with various flight-related anxieties to relax and regain a calm state of mind. This was done in comparison to a standard breathing exercise. The data was collected from user testing involving Visual Analogue Scales (VAS) for happy and sad moods and the Strait-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to evaluate participants' emotional states. Heart rate measurements were used to analyse correlations between stress and heart rate. Finally, the game itself was evaluated for its intrinsic value, effectiveness for stress relief and the participants' intention to engage with it.  The results of the study could however not draw any conclusions that indicate that the serious game was any more effective than standard breathing exercises in most aspects, with both having a similar influence overall. A few components, namely immersion, enjoyment, entertainment, concentration and usability did however show a significant increase indicating that the serious game is a more enjoyable experience while remaining effective for relaxation and stress relief.  In conclusion, having a larger number of participants would have enabled the results to make more accurate and reliable findings. Heart rate was also found to be a poor predictor of stress, with more appropriate sensors being an area of improvement for future studies. Using both breathing techniques and distraction can however be considered to be a useful way to provide stress relief as both components were found to complement each other well.

Cette thèse propose des modèles, méthodes et outils destinés aux game designers de jeux thérapeutiques. Le problème de conception le plus fondamental des jeux thérapeutiques est le gameplay, c'est-à-dire des objectifs de jeu et des actions que le joueur doit effectuer pour atteindre ces objectifs. Dans un jeu thérapeutique, le gameplay doit à la fois produire l'effet thérapeutique et motiver le patient à suivre son protocole. Les problèmes sous-jacents de celui-ci sont l'évaluation médicale et ludique du jeu, et l'échange de connaissances entre game designers et experts santé. Nous proposons une méthode de game design de jeu thérapeutique allant de la définition du problème à l'évaluation. Cette méthode intègre les autres solutions que nous proposons, notamment le modèle player/game/therapy et une méthode de formalisation du gameplay. / This PhD thesis explores the field of therapeutic games in order to propose methods and tools for the game designer of such games. The most fundamental design problem of therapeutic games is the gameplay, ie. the game objectives and the actions the player does to address the objectives. In therapeutic game, the gameplay must, at the same time, provide the therapeutic effects and motivate the patient to follow his protocol. The sub-problems of this are 1. the two-fold evaluation (medical and motivation), 2. the exchange of knowledge between game designers and health experts. We propose a therapeutic game design method which begins with the problem definition and ends with the two-fold evaluation. This method integrates the other solutions we propose, particularly the player / game / therapy model and a method to formalize the gameplay.

Common pool resource management systems are complex to manage due to the absence of a clear understanding of the effects of users’ behavioral characteristics. Non-cooperative decision making based on individual rationality (as opposed to group rationality) and a tendency to free ride due to lack of trust and information about other users’ behavior creates externalities and can lead to tragedy of the commons without intervention by a regulator. Nevertheless, even regulatory institutions often fail to sustain natural common pool resources in the absence of clear understanding of the responses of multiple heterogeneous decision makers to different regulation schemes. While modeling can help with our understanding of complex coupled human-natural systems, past research has not been able to realistically simulate these systems for two major limitations: 1) lack of computational capacity and proper mathematical models for solving distributed systems with self-optimizing agents; and 2) lack of enough information about users’ characteristics in common pool resource systems due to absence of reliable monitoring information. Recently, different studies have tried to address the first limitation by developing agent-based models, which can be appropriately handled with today’s computational capacity. While these models are more realistic than the social planner’s models which have been traditionally used in the field, they normally rely on different heuristics for characterizing users’ behavior and incorporating heterogeneity. This work is a step-forward in addressing the second limitation, suggesting an efficient method for collecting information on diverse behavioral characteristics of real agents for incorporation in distributed agent-based models. Gaming in interactive virtual environments is suggested as a reliable method for understanding different variables that promote sustainable resource use through observation of decision making and iii behavior of the resource system beneficiaries under various institutional frameworks and policies. A review of educational or "serious" games for environmental management was undertaken to determine an appropriate game for collecting information on real-agents and also to investigate the state of environmental management games and their potential as an educational tool. A web-based groundwater sharing simulation game—Irrigania—was selected to analyze the behavior of real agents under different common pool resource management institutions. Participants included graduate and undergraduate students from the University of Central Florida and Lund University. Information was collected on participants’ resource use, behavior and mindset under different institutional settings through observation and discussion with participants. Preliminary use of water resources gaming suggests communication, cooperation, information disclosure, trust, credibility and social learning between beneficiaries as factors promoting a shift towards sustainable resource use. Additionally, Irrigania was determined to be an effective tool for complementing traditional lecture-based teaching of complex concepts related to sustainable natural resource management. The different behavioral groups identified in the study can be used for improved simulation of multi-agent groundwater management systems.