abstract: In the nano-regime many materials exhibit properties that are quite different from their bulk counterparts. These nano-properties have been shown to be useful in a wide range of applications with nanomaterials being used for catalysts, in energy production, as protective coatings, and in medical treatment. While there is no shortage of exciting and novel applications, the world of nanomaterials suffers from a lack of large scale manufacturing techniques. The current methods and equipment used for manufacturing nanomaterials are generally slow, expensive, potentially dangerous, and material specific. The research and widespread use of nanomaterials has undoubtedly been hindered by this lack of appropriate tooling. This work details the effort to create a novel nanomaterial synthesis and deposition platform capable of operating at industrial level rates and reliability. The tool, referred to as Deppy, deposits material via hypersonic impaction, a two chamber process that takes advantage of compressible fluids operating in the choked flow regime to accelerate particles to up several thousand meters per second before they impact and stick to the substrate. This allows for the energetic separation of the synthesis and deposition processes while still behaving as a continuous flow reactor giving Deppy the unique ability to independently control the particle properties and the deposited film properties. While the ultimate goal is to design a tool capable of producing a broad range of nanomaterial films, this work will showcase Deppy's ability to produce silicon nano-particle films as a proof of concept. By adjusting parameters in the upstream chamber the particle composition was varied from completely amorphous to highly crystalline as confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. By adjusting parameters in the downstream chamber significant variation of the film's density was achieved. Further it was shown that the system is capable of making these adjustments in each chamber without affecting the operation of the other. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Electrical Engineering 2015

Nanopartículas luminescentes de silício poroso (NPSi) foram projetadas e preparadas por métodos de corrosão eletroquímica seguidas de ultrasonicação, em substratos de silício tipo-p, dopados com boro e com resistividades que variam de 10-20 e 1-10 ômega cm em soluções eletrolíticas compostas por ácido fluorídrico (HF) em etanol absoluto (C^2H^5OH). As condições de processamento envolvem a variação da densidade de corrente \"J\" tempo de anodização \"t\" e o controle da concentração do HF. Técnicas de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia de absorção UV-Vis, espectroscopia de fluorescência, difração de raios-X e medidas de potencial zeta e tamanho de partícula foram usados para investigar as propriedades morfológicas e ópticas do material resultante. Nanopartículas com diâmetros de até 150 nm foram obtidas após filtragem através de filtros de membrana. A oxidação química em soluções de peróxido de hidrogénio e ácido sulfúrico permitiu a obtenção de Nanoparticulas com emissão de fluorescência na região verde (532 nm), vermelho (630 e 650 nm) e infravermelho próximo (862 e 980 nm) do espectro eletromagnético. A associação de NPSi com RGDfV foi estudada por espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear de próton (H-RMN). Um aumento na distribuição do tamanho e a intensidade de fluorescência foi observado após a funcionalização com RGDfV. Os efeitos citotóxicos do RGDfV e NPSi foram confirmados por ensaios de viabilidade celular pelo método MTT usando células de melanoma murino B16-F10 como modelo biológico. Estudos iniciais de internalização de PcCIAI por eletroporação foram realizados para futuros estudos de transfecção de moléculas de interferência (siRNA). / Luminescent porous silicon nanoparticles (NPSi) were synthesized by electrochemical etching followed by ultra-sonication of 1-10 and 10-20 ohm.cm resistive p-type silicon wafers in electrolytic solutions composed by hydrofluoric acid (HF) in absolute ethanol (C2H5OH), by changing current density (J), etching time (t) and HF concentration. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction, dynamic ligth scattering (DLS), zetasize measurement, UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to investigate the morphological and optical properties of the resulting material. Nanoparticles with diameter up to 150 nm were obtained after filtered through filtration membrane. The chemical oxidation in oxidizing solutions composed by hydrogen peroxide in sulfuric acid allowed the isolation of nanoparticles with fluorescence properties as expected, with emission in green (532 nm), red (630 and 650 nm) and near infrared (862 and 980 nm) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The association of NPSi with RGDfV was studied by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (H-NMR). The increase on size distribution and fluorescence intensity was observed after functionalization with RGDfV. The citotoxicity effects of RGDfV and NPSi was confirmed by MTT assays using B16-F10 melanoma murine cells, as a biological model. Initial studies of internalization PcClAl by electroporation were performed for future studies of transfection of interfering molecules (siRNA).

Silicon nanoparticles are attractive candidates for biological, photovoltaic and energy storage applications due to their size dependent optoelectronic properties. These include tunable light emission, high brightness, and stability against photo-bleaching relative to organic dyes (see Chapter 1). The preparation and characterization of silicon nanoparticle based hybrid nanomaterials and their relevance to photovoltaic and biological applications are described. The surface-passivated silicon nanoparticles were produced in one step from the reactive high-energy ball milling (RHEBM) of silicon wafers with various organic ligands. The surface structure and optical properties of the passivated silicon nanoparticles were systematically characterized. Fast approaches for purifying and at the same time size separating the silicon nanoparticles using a gravity GPC column were developed. The hydrodynamic diameter and size distribution of these size-separated silicon nanoparticles were determined using GPC and Diffusion Ordered NMR Spectroscopy (DOSY) as fast, reliable alternative approaches to TEM. Water soluble silicon nanoparticles were synthesized by grafting PEG polymers onto functionalized silicon nanoparticles with distal alkyne or azide moieties. The surface-functionalized silicon nanoparticles were produced from the reactive high-energy ball milling (RHEBM) of silicon wafers with a mixture of either 5-chloro-1-pentyne in 1-pentyne or 1,7 octadiyne in 1-hexyne to afford air and water stable chloroalkyl or alkynyl terminated nanoparticles, respectively. Nanoparticles with the ω-chloroalkyl substituents were easily converted to ω-azidoalkyl groups through the reaction of the silicon nanoparticles with sodium azide in DMF. The azido terminated nanoparticles were then grafted with monoalkynyl-PEG polymers using a copper catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction to afford core-shell silicon nanoparticles with a covalently attached PEG shell. Covalently linked silicon nanoparticle clusters were synthesized via the CuAAC “click” reaction of functional silicon nanoparticles with α,ω-functional PEG polymers of various lengths. Dynamic light scattering studies show that the flexible globular nanoparticle arrays undergo a solvent dependent change in volume (ethanol> dichloromethane> toluene) similar in behavior to hydrogel nanocomposites. A novel light-harvesting complex and artificial photosynthetic material based on silicon nanoparticles was designed and synthesized. Silicon nanoparticles were used as nanoscaffolds for organizing the porphyrins to form light-harvesting complexes thereby enhancing the light absorption of the system. The energy transfer from silicon nanoparticles to porphyrin acceptors was investigated by both steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. The energy transfer efficiency depended on the donor-acceptor ratio and the distance between the nanoparticle and the porphyrin ring. The addition of C60 resulted in the formation of silicon nanoparticle-porphyrin-fullerene nanoclusters which led to charge separation upon irradiation of the porphyrin ring. The electron-transfer process between the porphyrin and fullerene was investigated by femto-second transient absorption spectroscopy. Finally, the water soluble silicon nanoparticles were used as nanocarriers in photodynamic therapeutic application, in which can selectively deliver porphyrins into human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells. In particular, the PEGylated alkynyl-porphyrins were conjugated onto the azido-terminated silicon nanoparticles via a CuAAC “click” reaction. The resultant PEGylated porphyrin grafted silicon nanoparticles have diameters around 13.5 ± 3.8 nm. The cryo-TEM and conventional TEM analysis proved that the PEGylated porphyrin grafted silicon nanoparticle could form the micelle-like structures at higher concentration in water via self-assembly. The UV-Vis absorption analysis demonstrated that the silicon nanoparticle could reduce the porphyrin aggregation in water which can reduce the photophysical activity of porphyrin. In addition, the nanoparticle complex was capable of producing singlet oxygen when the porphyrin units were excited by light. The cell studies demonstrated that the silicon nanoparticle could deliver the porphyrin drugs into HEK293T cells and accumulate in the mitochondria where the porphyrin could serve as an efficient photosensitizer to kill the cells via mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. / acase@tulane.edu

Le domaine des nanomatériaux joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans de nombreuses applications, qu'elles soient de natures biologique, médicales électroniques etc... Dans ce travail, nous présenterons des résultats concernant deux types de nanoparticules, le premier genre traite de nanoparticules hybrides confectionnées chimiquement pour des fins biologiques, le deuxième concerne des nanocristaux de silicium fabriqués par pyrolise laser pour des applications potentielles en optoélectronique. Les études sont menées en mettant en œuvre deux différentes techniques optiques, l'une en champ lointain, l'autre en champ proche. Dans le cas des nanohybrides, nous nous intéresserons à une caractérisation par microscopie en champ proche, qu'elle soit de nature spectroscopique ou d'imagerie simple, en utilisant en particulier une configuration optique guidante. Nous ferons un premier point à propos de l'émission de ses nanoparticules, puis discuterons des problèmes d'artefacts et de la résolution des images que nous pouvons atteindre avec notre montage. Nous prouverons l'importance essentielle du rôle des nanohybrides en tant que marqueur biologiques, et ceci dans deux différentes types de configuration de capteurs biologiques. Les nanoparticules de silicium de petites tailles (< 3 nm) seront étudiées essentiellement par microscopie confocale. Plus précisément, nous nous intéressons aux différents procédés de luminescence qui ont lieu lors de l'excitation d'une nanoparticule unique, en tenant compte des effets de taille et de surface. Nous chercherons à étudier l'influence de l'environnement des nanoparticules sur leurs propriétés spectrales en les plaçant dans des couches minces de natures diélectriques différentes. Nous conclurons enfin sur une brève description des différents effets Sark qui prennent lieu dans un tel système.

En esta tesis, capas de óxido de silicio rico en silicio [SRO, (SiOx, x<2)] con diferentes excesos de silicio fueron depositadas por medio de la técnica de depósito químico en fase vapor a baja presión (LPCVD). Un segundo conjunto de muestras de SRO implantadas con silicio (SI-SRO) adicional fueron también fabricadas. Nanopartículas de silicio (Si-nps) en estas capas fueron creadas después de someter a las muestras a un tratamiento térmico en alta temperatura (1100 y 1250º C). La composición, microestructura y propiedades ópticas de estas capas de SRO y SI-SRO fueron analizadas en función de los diferentes parámetros tecnológicos, tales como exceso de silicio, implantación de silicio, así como de la temperatura de tratamiento térmico.Una vez conocido la microestructura, composición y propiedades ópticas de estos materiales, capas de SRO que exhibieron la mejor propiedad fotoluminiscente (FL más intensa) fueron escogidas para analizar sus propiedades eléctricas y electro-ópticas; estructuras Metal-Óxido-Semiconductor (MOS) fueron fabricadas usando las capas de SRO como material dieléctrico para tales estudios. Capas de SRO con exceso de silicio de ~4.0 and ~2.2 at.% y grosores de entre 24 y 80 nm fueron depositadas. El mecanismo de conducción en estas películas es analizado haciendo uso de modelos como tuneleo asistido por trampas (TAT) y tuneleo Fowler-Nordheim (FN) en bajos y altos campos eléctricos, respectivamente.Las mediciones eléctricas mostraron importantes resultados tales como una reducción en la capacitancia y corriente durante el barrido de voltaje o después de estresar eléctricamente los dispositivos. Dichos efectos son relacionados con la aniquilación de caminos conductivos que son creados por nanoclusters de silicio (Si-cls) que se encuentran dispersados dentro de la película de SRO.Además de lo anterior, algunos dispositivos exhibieron fluctuaciones en la corriente en la forma de picos y un comportamiento de escalera muy claro a temperatura ambiente. Dichos efectos son relacionados con los llamados efectos de bloqueo Coulómbico (CB) que se presentan en las nanopartículas de silicio que se encuentran dentro de las capas de SRO. A partir del ancho de cada escalón se pudo estimar el tamaño (cerca de 1 nm) de las nanopartículas.Estudios de luminiscencia de efecto de campo en las capas de SRO son estudiados por excitar los dispositivos con pulsos de voltaje. Además de la electroluminiscencia (EL) pulsada, es mostrado que estos dispositivos también muestran EL en voltaje continuo, donde la emisión es observada como múltiples puntos brillantes de varios colores sobre la superficie de los dispositivos cuando estos son polarizados en inversa. El espectro de emisión en dichos dispositivos es amplio y va desde 400 hasta 900 nm.Finalmente, una correlación entre las propiedades microestructurales, eléctricas y luminiscentes (FL y EL) es analizada y discutida. / In this thesis, silicon rich oxide [SRO, (SiOx, x<2)] films with different silicon excesses were deposited by low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPVCD). Besides, Si implanted SRO (SI-SRO) films were also fabricated. Si-nps in these films were created after a thermal annealing at high temperature (1100 and 1250º C). The composition, microstructure and optical properties of these SRO and SI-SRO films were analyzed as a function of the different technological parameters, such as silicon excess, Si ion implantation dose, and thermal annealing temperature.Once the microstructure, composition as well as the optical properties of these materials is known, SRO films which exhibited the best photoluminescent (strongest PL) properties were chosen in order to analyze their electrical and electro-optical properties.Simple Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) structures using the SRO films as the dielectric layer were fabricated for these studies. SRO films with Si-excess of ~4.0 and ~2.2 at.% and thickness ranging from 24 to 80 nm were deposited. The conduction mechanism in these films is analyzed by making use of trap assisted tunnelling (TAT) in low electric field as well as Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunnelling in high electric fields.The electrical measurements exhibited important results, such as a reduction in capacitance and current during the sweep or after applying a constant bias. These effects are ascribed to the annihilation of conduction paths created by silicon clusters (Si-cls) inside the SRO films.A part from that, some devices exhibited current fluctuations in the form of spike-like peaks and a clear staircase at room temperature. These effects were related to Coulomb blockade (CB) effects in the silicon nanoparticles embedded in the SRO films. And from the current plateaus, the size of the Si-nps (about 1 nm) was calculated.Field effect luminescence of these SRO films was studied by alternating negative (positive) to positive (negative) voltages (pulsed excitation). Moreover, it is demonstrated that these SRO films show EL emission in continuous current voltage, observed at naked eye. Multiple shining spots of several colours are seen on the MOS-like structure surface when reversely biased. These devices display a broad electroluminescent emission spectrum which goes from 400 nm up to 900 nm.Finally, a correlation between the structural, electrical and luminescent (PL and EL) properties is discussed.

Nanopartículas luminescentes de silício poroso (NPSi) foram projetadas e preparadas por métodos de corrosão eletroquímica seguidas de ultrasonicação, em substratos de silício tipo-p, dopados com boro e com resistividades que variam de 10-20 e 1-10 ômega cm em soluções eletrolíticas compostas por ácido fluorídrico (HF) em etanol absoluto (C^2H^5OH). As condições de processamento envolvem a variação da densidade de corrente \"J\" tempo de anodização \"t\" e o controle da concentração do HF. Técnicas de microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), espectroscopia de absorção UV-Vis, espectroscopia de fluorescência, difração de raios-X e medidas de potencial zeta e tamanho de partícula foram usados para investigar as propriedades morfológicas e ópticas do material resultante. Nanopartículas com diâmetros de até 150 nm foram obtidas após filtragem através de filtros de membrana. A oxidação química em soluções de peróxido de hidrogénio e ácido sulfúrico permitiu a obtenção de Nanoparticulas com emissão de fluorescência na região verde (532 nm), vermelho (630 e 650 nm) e infravermelho próximo (862 e 980 nm) do espectro eletromagnético. A associação de NPSi com RGDfV foi estudada por espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear de próton (H-RMN). Um aumento na distribuição do tamanho e a intensidade de fluorescência foi observado após a funcionalização com RGDfV. Os efeitos citotóxicos do RGDfV e NPSi foram confirmados por ensaios de viabilidade celular pelo método MTT usando células de melanoma murino B16-F10 como modelo biológico. Estudos iniciais de internalização de PcCIAI por eletroporação foram realizados para futuros estudos de transfecção de moléculas de interferência (siRNA). / Luminescent porous silicon nanoparticles (NPSi) were synthesized by electrochemical etching followed by ultra-sonication of 1-10 and 10-20 ohm.cm resistive p-type silicon wafers in electrolytic solutions composed by hydrofluoric acid (HF) in absolute ethanol (C2H5OH), by changing current density (J), etching time (t) and HF concentration. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction, dynamic ligth scattering (DLS), zetasize measurement, UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy were used to investigate the morphological and optical properties of the resulting material. Nanoparticles with diameter up to 150 nm were obtained after filtered through filtration membrane. The chemical oxidation in oxidizing solutions composed by hydrogen peroxide in sulfuric acid allowed the isolation of nanoparticles with fluorescence properties as expected, with emission in green (532 nm), red (630 and 650 nm) and near infrared (862 and 980 nm) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The association of NPSi with RGDfV was studied by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (H-NMR). The increase on size distribution and fluorescence intensity was observed after functionalization with RGDfV. The citotoxicity effects of RGDfV and NPSi was confirmed by MTT assays using B16-F10 melanoma murine cells, as a biological model. Initial studies of internalization PcClAl by electroporation were performed for future studies of transfection of interfering molecules (siRNA).

This thesis presents new methods to study the aerosol synthesis of nano-particles and a new model to simulate the formation of silicon nanoparticles. Population balance modelling is used to model nanoparticle synthesis and a stochastic numerical method is used to solve the governing equations. The population balance models are coupled to chemical kinetic models and offer insight into the fundamental physiochemical processes leading to particle formation. The first method developed in this work is a new mathematical expression for calculating the rate of Brownian coagulation with stochastic weighted algorithms (SWAs). The new expression permits the solution of the population balance equations with SWAs using a computationally-efficient technique of majorant rates and fictitious jumps. Convergence properties and efficiency of the expression are evaluated using a detailed silica particle model. A sequential-modular algorithm is subsequently presented which solves networks of perfectly stirred reactors with a population balance model using the stochastic method. The algorithm is tested in some simple network configurations, which are used to identify methods through which error in the stochastic solution may be reduced. It is observed that SWAs are useful in preventing accumulation of error in reactor networks. A new model for silicon nanoparticle synthesis is developed. The model includes gas-phase reactions describing silane decomposition, and a detailed multivariate particle model which tracks particle structure and composition. Systematic parameter estimation is used to fit the model to experimental cases. Results indicated that the key challenge in modelling silicon systems is obtaining a correct description of the particle nucleation process. Finally, the silicon model is used in conjunction with the reactor network algorithm to simulate the start-up of a plug-flow reactor. The power of stochastic methods in resolving characteristics of a particle ensemble is highlighted by investigating the number, size, degree of sintering and polydispersity along the length of the reactor.

In past years, nanoparticles have been studied as possible platform to be used in biomedicine. In order to establish the application potential of nanoparticles, its impact to biological systems have to be determined. Herein, several silicon-based nanoparticles of different origins were studied in respect of their influence on metabolic activity of human cells, namely osteoblast cell line SAOS-2 and monocytic cell line THP-1. The obtained results proposed that the impact of nanoparticles on cells is highly dependent on cultivation conditions in which nanoparticles are administered to cells. Furthermore, microscopy experiments were implemented in order to localize the particles within cells, where conventional microscopy limitations are evident. Key words: silicon nanoparticles, quantum dots, cell-particle interaction, cytotoxicity

Le domaine des nanomatériaux joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans de nombreuses applications, qu’elles soient de natures biologique, médicales électroniques etc… Dans ce travail, nous présenterons des résultats concernant deux types de nanoparticules, le premier genre traite de nanoparticules hybrides confectionnées chimiquement pour des fins biologiques, le deuxième concerne des nanocristaux de silicium fabriqués par pyrolise laser pour des applications potentielles en optoélectronique. Les études sont menées en mettant en œuvre deux différentes techniques optiques, l’une en champ lointain, l’autre en champ proche. Dans le cas des nanohybrides, nous nous intéresserons à une caractérisation par microscopie en champ proche, qu’elle soit de nature spectroscopique ou d’imagerie simple, en utilisant en particulier une configuration optique guidante. Nous ferons un premier point à propos de l’émission de ses nanoparticules, puis discuterons des problèmes d’artefacts et de la résolution des images que nous pouvons atteindre avec notre montage. Nous prouverons l’importance essentielle du rôle des nanohybrides en tant que marqueur biologiques, et ceci dans deux différentes types de configuration de capteurs biologiques. Les nanoparticules de silicium de petites tailles (< 3 nm) seront étudiées essentiellement par microscopie confocale. Plus précisément, nous nous intéressons aux différents procédés de luminescence qui ont lieu lors de l’excitation d’une nanoparticule unique, en tenant compte des effets de taille et de surface. Nous chercherons à étudier l’influence de l’environnement des nanoparticules sur leurs propriétés spectrales en les plaçant dans des couches minces de natures diélectriques différentes. Nous conclurons enfin sur une brève description des différents effets Sark qui prennent lieu dans un tel système. / The domain of nanomatrials plays an important role in many biological, medical and electronic applications. In this work, we present results concerning two types of nanoparticles : the first kind treats with hybrid nanoparitcls chemically synthesized for biological means, the second concerns silicon nanocrystals fabricated by laser pyrolisis for optoelectronic applications. The studies are done by using two different optical techniques, one in the far field, the other in the near field. In the nanohybrids case, we are interested by spectroscopic, and imaging near field characterization, by particularly using a waveguide configuration. We will first shed light about the emission properties of such nanoparticles, and then discuss artefact problems, in addition to the resolution of the images we can attain in our setup. We will prove the essential importance of the role of nanohybrids as biological markers with two different types of biosensors. The small sized silicon nanoparticles (< 3 nm) are essentially studied by confocal microscopy. More precisely, we will be interested by the different luminescence processes taking place during the excitation of a unique nanoparticle, by taking into consideration the surface effects. We will search to study the influence of the nanoparticles environment on their spectral properties by placing them in thin films having different dielectric properties. We will conclude with a small description of the stark effects which take place in such a system

Die Arbeit befasst sich mit dem chemischen Verhalten von Oberflächen an Siliciumnanopartikeln. Diese stehen in ihrer Reaktivität, aufgrund des großen Verhältnisses Oberfläche zu Volumen, zwischen einzelnen Atomen und ausgedehnten Kristallen. Durch Umsetzung mit unterschiedlich funktionalisierten Molekülen gelingt es, die Oberfläche der Partikel zu modifizieren. Dabei wurde eine neue Möglichkeit gefunden, Si-C-Bindungen auf Si-Oberflächen zu erzeugen. Die Modifizierung mit Wasserstoff (durch Behandlung mit HF) oder mit Chlor (durch Umsetzung mit Chlorierungsmitteln) schafft neue, synthetisch wertvolle Ausgangssituationen. Darauf aufbauend konnten Alkyl, Alkoxy- und Amingruppen kovalent angeknüpft werden. Die chemische Modifizierung der Nanopartikel führt zu verändertem Photoleitfähigkeits- sowie Photolumineszenzverhalten. Es wurde ein Vorschlag zur Deutung dieser Effekte entwickelt.