As the age increases, the physical fitness of seniors decreases. This shows the fragility of their body. Managing everyday activities becomes increasingly more difficult for them. Result of this is reduced self-sufficiency of the seniors, which leads to reduced mobility and to the greater loss of muscle mass and higher dependence on professional care. Aging is accompanied by loss of muscle mass and muscle strength - sarcopenia. This is one of the main causes of geriatric fragility. Sarcopenia presents a serious health problem with both social and economic consequences. The term sarcopenia (from Greek words sarx - meaning flesh referring to muscle and penia - loss) was first used in 1989 by Irwin Rosenberg to describe the loss of muscle mass accompanying aging. Exactly defining the term sarcopenia has helped explain this gradual loss of muscle mass. Three objectives were set in the thesis. The first objective was to find out whether sarcopenia reduces the quality of life in the elderly. The second goal was to determine, which quality of life tests are suitable for testing sarcopenia and the last one was whether the SARC - F questionnaire predicts sarcopenia.Quantitative research was used for the empirical part of this work. Data collection was performed using a method of a questionnaire. These were standardized questionnaires aimed at assessing sarcopenia and quality of life. The research was carried out with a total of 77 respondents with sarcopenia and respondents without sarcopenia. The quantitative part of the research was statistically processed using the MS Excel computer program.

Le vieillissement musculaire (sarcopénie) conduit inéluctablement à une perte d'autonomie, et à une moindre capacité à lutter contre les agressions métaboliques. Or, les mécanismes mis en jeu sont complexes et restent mal connus. Ainsi, au cours de cette thèse, une étude protéomique comparative a été développée afin d'identifier de nouveaux biomarqueurs potentiels de la sarcopénie chez la femme âgée post-ménopausée, et 73 protéines exprimées différentiellement dans le muscle âga ont été identifiées. En plus des altérations du muscle squelettique, l'âge est connu comme étant un facteur favorisant l'apparition du syndrome métabolique (SM), facteur de risque pour les maladies cardiovasculaires et le diabète de type II. Cependant, les effets du SM sur le muscle squelettique des personnes âgées sont peu décrits dans la littérature. Des marquages immunohistologiques ont été réalisés à partir de biopsies du muscle vastus lateralis provenant de personnes jeunes (25 ans) et âgées avec ou sans SM (75 ans), afin de décrire les altérations structurales et fonctionnelles du muscle squelettique liées à l'âge et au MS. Les résultats montrent une atrophie des fibres de type II ayant une déformation accrue lors du vieillissement. Chez les personnes âgées atteintes de SM, l'aire des fibres est augmentée par rapport aux personnes âgées contrôles, et une forte diminution de l'activité cytochrome c oxydase a été observée. De plus, le vieillissement et plus particulièrement le SM sont associés à une forte accumulation de lipides intramusculaires. Enfin, alors que peu de différences ont été observées chez les personnes âgées contrôles, le contenu en capillaire est fortement altéré chez les individus atteints de SM. Par la suite, une étude protéomique comparative a permis d'identifier 42 biomarqueurs potentiellement impliqués dans le vieillissement musculaire et/ou dans le syndrome métabolique. L'ensemble des résultats obtenus au cours de cette thèse devrait permettre d'améliorer notre compréhension des facteurs impliqués dans le développement de la sarcopénie, et pourrait permettre d'identifier à la fois de nouvelles voies de régulation et suggérer des cibles thérapeutiques potentielles. / Muscle aging (sarcopenia) contributes to both loss of autonomy and decreased capacity to prevent metabolic aggressions, but the mechanisms involved are complex and remain unclear. Therefore in this thesis, we have undertaken a top-down differential proteomic approach to reveal novel potential biomarkers of sarcopenia, and 73 differentially expressed proteins were identified. In addition to alterations of skeletal muscle, aging favors metabolic syndrome (MS), a risk factor for cardiovascular disease and type II diabetes. However, the effects of MS on skeletal muscle in old individuals have poorly been investigated. Immunohistochemical studies were performed with vastus lateralis muscle biopsies from young (25 years) and old (75 years) men with and without MS, to reveal the importance of age-dependent and MS-associated modifications on fiber-type characteristics. An atrophy of type-II fibers and altered fiber shape characterized muscle aging in lean healthy men. In contrast, increased cross sectional area of fibers, and reduced cytochrome c oxidase activity in all fiber types characterized MS, even in active elderly men. Moreover, aging and particularly MS were associated with accumulation of intramyocellular lipid droplets. Finally, while few differences were observed in lean healthy men, the capillary supply was strongly altered in old men with MS. Thereafter, a differential proteomic approach identified 42 potential biomarkers implicated in muscle aging and/or in metabolic syndrome. Overall the results obtained in this thesis may improve our understanding of the factors influencing sarcopenia, and may both identify new regulatory pathways and provide potential therapeutical targets.

La sarcopénie est une maladie dégénérative liée à l’âge qui se caractérise par une perte progressive et involontaire de la masse et de la force musculaire. Elle s’accompagne d’une atteinte de la régénération musculaire et d’une accumulation des espèces réactives de l’oxygène. Les cavéoles sont des invaginations de la membrane plasmique. Dans le muscle, elles jouent un rôle dans la différenciation des cellules satellites et dans le maintien de l’unité contractile dans le muscle différencié. Certaines formes de myopathies sont consécutives à l’absence de cavéoles dans le muscle. Elles sont également impliquées dans la médiation de signaux liés à la régulation du stress oxydant. Afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes régulant la mise en place de la sarcopénie, nous avons étudié ici les relations existant entre le stress oxydant et les cavéoles. Des cellules musculaires de souris ont été traitées par l’H2O2 et une diminution du taux des cavéolines-1et -3 a été mise en évidence dans des myoblastes et les myotubes, respectivement. Il apparaît donc que les protéines constitutives des cavéoles sont effectivement sensibles au stress oxydant dans les cellules musculaires. En présence d’H2O2, la fonction des cavéoles (endocytose et résistance au stress mécanique) était également significativement altérée dans des myoblastes. L’ensemble des résultats obtenus suggère que le stress oxydant aurait un effet sur les cavéoles, ce qui pourrait entraîner des conséquences sur la régénération et le maintien de l’intégrité musculaire au cours du vieillissement. / Sarcopenia is an age-related degenerative disease which is characterized by a progressive and involuntary loss of muscle mass and strength. It is accompanied by an impairment of muscle regeneration and accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Caveolae are invaginations of the plasma membrane. In muscle, they play a role in the differentiation of satellite cells and in maintaining the contractile unit of the differentiated skeletal muscle. Some myopathies are resulting from the absence of caveolae in muscle. Caveolae are also involved in mediating signals related to the regulation of oxidative stress. To better understand the mechanisms involved in the development of sarcopenia, we investigated here the relationship between oxidative stress and caveolae. Mouse muscle cells were treated with H2O2 and decreased levels of caveolin-1 and -3 were demonstrated in myoblasts and myotubes, respectively. It therefore appears that caveolae constituent proteins are actually sensitive to oxidative stress in muscle cells. In the presence of H2O2, caveolae functions (endocytosis and resistance to mechanical stress) were also significantly degraded in myoblasts. Altogether, these data suggest that oxidative stress would affect caveolae, which could have consequences on regeneration and maintenance of muscle integrity during aging.

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a fatal condition occurring in approximately 1 in 3500 male births and is due to the lack of a protein called dystrophin. Initially DMD was considered a skeletal myopathy, but the pathology and consequences of cardiomyopathy are being increasingly recognised. Fibrosis, resulting from continual cycles of degeneration of the muscle tissues followed by inadequate regeneration of the muscles, is progressive in both cardiac and skeletal dystrophic muscle. In the heart fibrosis interferes with contractility and rhythm whereas it affects contractile function and causes contractures in skeletal muscles. This study utilised the mdx mouse which exhibits a pathological loss of muscle fibres and fibrosis characteristic of DMD, to examine a range of mechanisms that can influence muscle function and fibrosis. Ageing and workload both appear to contribute to the development of dystrophic features in cardiac and skeletal muscle of the mdx mouse. Therefore the effect of eccentric exercise on cardiac and skeletal muscle was examined in older mdx mice. Mice ran in 30 minute sessions for five months, 5 days per week. Downhill treadmill running did not exacerbate the contractile function or fibrosis of the mdx heart or the EDL, SOL or diaphragm muscles suggesting that cytokines influence function and fibrosis to a greater extent than workload alone. The role of the cytokine TGF-beta was examined by treating mdx mice with the TGF-beta antagonist pirfenidone at 0.4, 0.8 or 1.2 per cent in drinking water for six months. Pirfenidone improved cardiac contractility (P<0.01) and coronary flow (P<0.05), to levels comparable to control mice, despite no reduction in cardiac fibrosis. Pirfenidone did not reduce fibrosis or improve function in skeletal muscle. A deficiency of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) in DMD and mdx mice causes a lowered production of nitric oxide indicating that the substrate of nNOS, l-arginine, may be beneficial to cardiac and skeletal muscle function in mdx mice. Oral l-arginine (5 mg/g bw) improved cardiac contractility, coronary flow and reduced cardiac fibrosis (P<0.05) without improving skeletal muscle function or fibrosis. In contrast, 10 mg/g bw l-arginine improved cardiac function and coronary flow (P<0.01), despite also elevating cardiac collagen. This increment in collagen was prevented by co-administration of prednisone. The experiments described in this dissertation reveal for the first time that pharmacological treatments in mdx mice can improve cardiac structure and function. Further elucidation of the optimum time and doses of such treatments may result in future pharmacological treatments to improve cardiac function and fibrosis in DMD.

Skeletal muscle is a heterogeneous, multinucleated, post-mitotic tissue that contains many functionally diverse fibre types that are capable of adjusting their phenotypic properties in response to altered contractile demands. This plasticity, or adaptability of skeletal muscle is largely dictated by variations in motoneuron firing patterns. For example, in response to increased tonic firing of slow motoneurons, which occurs during bouts of endurance training or chronic low-frequency stimulation (CLFS), skeletal muscle adapts by transforming from a faster to a slower phenotypic profile. CLFS is an animal model of endurance training that induces fast-to-slow fibre type transformations in the absence of fibre injury in the rat. The underlying signaling mechanisms regulating this fast-to-slow fibre type transformation, however, remain to be fully elucidated. It has been suggested that myogenic stem cells, termed satellite cells, may regulate and/or facilitate this transformational process. Therefore, the signaling mechanisms involved in CLFS-induced satellite cell activation as well as the role satellite cells may play in CLFS-induced skeletal muscle adaptation were investigated in rat. A pharmacological inhibitor of nitric oxide (NO) synthase, Nω-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester, was used to investigate CLFS-induced satellite cell activation in the absence of endogenous NO production. Results suggest that NO is required for early CLFS-induced satellite cell activation, but a yet-to-be defined pathway exists that is able to fully compensate in the absence of prolonged NO production. A novel method of satellite cell ablation (i.e. weekly focal γ-irradiation application) was used to investigate CLFS-induced skeletal muscle adaptation in the absence of a viable satellite cell population. Myosin heavy chain (MHC), an important structural and regulatory protein component of the contractile apparatus, was used as a cellular marker of the adaptive response to CLFS. Findings suggest that satellite cell activity may be required for early fast-to-slow MHC-based transformations to occur at the protein level without delay in the fast fibre population, and may also play an obligatory role in the final transformation from fast type IIA to slow type I fibres. Interestingly, additional results show that NO appears to be a key mediator of MHC isoform gene expression during CLFS-induced fast-to-slow fibre type transformations.

The aim of this project was to produce and study a murine homozygous knock-in model containing a fast skeletal regulatory light chain (RLC) containing a Asp49toAla point mutation. The D49A mutation is in the functional calcium binding loop of RLC, which is believed to modulate muscle contraction in striated muscle. To introduce the mutation, a reversible knock-out/knock-in system was employed. The Cre/Lox-P strategy was used to conditionally knock-in the RLC D49A mutation. The generation of the knock-in mouse was attempted with two different breeding strategies consisting of two Cre mouse lines with differential expression patterns during development. The proposed animal was never produced because the RLC knock-out recombination event introduced a splicing error resulting in a stop codon in intron 2. Extensive DNA, RNA and protein analysis as well as histological, gross morphology and muscle physiology studies obtained from the animals of the two breeding strategies lead to the identification of the splicing error. Evidence for this outcome is presented. A recommendation for a different strategy in future studies is included.

The main objective of the study was to investigate and simulate skeletal muscleforce production during and after isometric contractions, active muscle lengtheningand active muscle shortening. The motivation behind this work was to improve thedominant model of muscle force generation based on the theories of Hill from 1938. Effects of residual force enhancement and force depression were observed after concentric and eccentric contractions, and also during stretch-shortening cycles. It wasshown that this force modification is not related to lengthening/shortening velocity, butinstead the steady-state force after non-isometric contractions can be well describedby an initial isometric force to which a modification is added. The modification isevaluated from the mechanical work performed by and on the muscle during lengthvariations. The time constants calculated for isometric force redevelopment appearedto be in certain relations with those for initial isometric force development, an observation which extended our basis for muscle modelling. A macroscopic muscular model consisting of a contractile element, and paralleland series elastic elements was supplemented with a history component and adoptedfor mouse soleus muscle experiments. The parameters from the experiment analysis, particularly the force modification after non-isometric contractions and the timeconstants, were reproduced by the simulations. In a step towards a general implementation, the history modification was introduced in the muscluloskeletal model ofOpenSim software, which was then used for simulations of full body movements. / QC 20120525

Myosin II is the molecular motor responsible for muscle contraction. It transforms the chemical energy in ATP into mechanical work while interacting with actin filaments in so called cross-bridge cycles. Myosin II or its proteolytic fragments e.g., heavy meromyosin (HMM) can be adsorbed to moderately hydrophobic surfaces in vitro, while maintaining their ability to translocate actin filaments. This enables observation of myosin-induced actin filament sliding in a microscope. This “in vitro motility assay” (IVMA) is readily used in fundamental studies of actomyosin, including studies of muscle contraction. The degree of correlation of the myosin II function in the IVMA with its function in muscle depends on how the myosin molecules are arranged on the surface. Therefore a multi-technique approach, including total internal reflection spectroscopy, fluorescence interference contrast microscopy and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation, was applied to characterize the HMM surface configurations. Several configurations with varying distributions were identified depending on the surface property. The most favorable HMM configurations for actin binding were observed on moderately hydrophobic surfaces.   The effects on actomyosin function of different cargo sizes and amount of cargo loaded on an actin filament were also investigated. No difference in sliding velocities could be observed, independent of cargo size indicating that diffusional processive runs of myosin II along an actin filament are not crucial for actomyosin function in muscle. Furthermore, a tool for accurate velocity measurements appropriate for IVMAs at low [MgATP] was developed by utilizing the actin filament capping protein CapZ. These improvements allowed an investigation of the [MgATP]-velocity relationship to study possible processivity in fast skeletal muscle myosin II.  It is shown that the [MgATP]–velocity relationship is well described by a Michaelis-Menten hyperbola.  In addition, statistical cross-bridge modeling showed that the experimental results are in good agreement with recent findings of actomyosin cross-bridge properties, e.g., non-linear cross-bridge elasticity. However, no effect of inter-head cooperativity could be observed.   In conclusion, the described results have contributed to in-depth understanding of the actomyosin cross-bridge cycle in muscle contraction.

Although androgens are known to exert anabolic effects in skeletal muscle, overexpression of androgen receptor (AR) selectively in this tissue causes androgen dependent motor deficits and muscular atrophy. The cellular and subcellular changes underlying this phenotype are unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the ultrastructural and histologic changes accompanying myopathy and to determine the importance of androgens and overexpression level for myopathic features. Transmission electron microscopy revealed augmented mitochondrial content and reduced myofibril width in androgen exposed transgenics. Additionally, male transgenics demonstrated increased glycogen content. Histochemical analyses confirmed sex-specific changes in glycogen content and revealed a surprising loss in the proportion of oxidative fibers in symptomatic animals. However, increased mitochondrial content was confirmed by the presence of ragged red fibers. Overexpression of AR in muscle fiber results in mitochondrial pathology and dysregulation of glycogen metabolism, possibly reflecting normal but exaggerated function of androgens in skeletal muscle fibers.

Although androgens are known to exert anabolic effects in skeletal muscle, overexpression of androgen receptor (AR) selectively in this tissue causes androgen dependent motor deficits and muscular atrophy. The cellular and subcellular changes underlying this phenotype are unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to elucidate the ultrastructural and histologic changes accompanying myopathy and to determine the importance of androgens and overexpression level for myopathic features. Transmission electron microscopy revealed augmented mitochondrial content and reduced myofibril width in androgen exposed transgenics. Additionally, male transgenics demonstrated increased glycogen content. Histochemical analyses confirmed sex-specific changes in glycogen content and revealed a surprising loss in the proportion of oxidative fibers in symptomatic animals. However, increased mitochondrial content was confirmed by the presence of ragged red fibers. Overexpression of AR in muscle fiber results in mitochondrial pathology and dysregulation of glycogen metabolism, possibly reflecting normal but exaggerated function of androgens in skeletal muscle fibers.