The smartphone has quickly become the most used device to access the internet. Academic and public concern has been raised if overuse of smartphone technology can have detrimental effects on brain and behavior. Preliminary results suggest that excessive smartphone usage may be linked to impaired inhibitory control. The present study investigates whether such a relationship is present in a sample of healthy individuals with varying degrees of usage. To investigate the proposed relationship, the Stroop color and word task and the stop-signal task was utilized to measure inhibitory control, while screen time was utilized to measure duration of smartphone usage. A Pearson‘s correlation analysis and an independent t-test/Mann Whitney-U test analyzed the results, which did not yield statistical significance.

Mobiltelefoner, sociala medier och smarta teknologier är idag en självklar del av tillvaron för många. Samtidigt har överanvändning av mobiltelefoner förknippats med psykisk ohälsa. Som del av utvecklingen av smarta telefoner, appar och tillgången till stora datamängder har även fenomenet att bevaka sina egna vanor med hjälp av tekniken blivit vanligt förekommande. Denna typ av informationsinsamling kallas för quantified self-data och intresset för tekniken är stort. Tidigare forskning om quantified self-data antyder att det skulle kunna vara ett kraftfullt hjälpmedel för en användare som vill förbättra sin livskvalitet. Ett däremot outforskat område är vad som händer med effekterna av quantified self när det ställs mot teknologier som redan vunnit mark i att styra en användares beteende, exempelvis våra smartphones. Denna studie syftade till att utforska detta område och frågan som ställs är hur kontinuerlig feedback i form av quantified self-data, via en mobilapplikation, har för inverkan på en mobilanvändares upplevelse av mobilen och sin användning av den. I studien fick åtta deltagare under två veckor använda sig av mobilapplikationen Moment, som presenterar data om en användares mobilanvändning. Deltagarna ombads även skriva ner dagliga reflektioner i en loggbok. Resultatet visar på att appen tillsammans med loggboken fick deltagarna att aktivt reflektera över sin användning. Deltagarna ansåg att deras användning förblev oförändrad, men att appen och dess data mestadels motiverade till ett minskat användande. Samtliga deltagare trodde att appen var ett bra hjälpmedel för den som vill minska sin mobilanvändning. / Smartphones and social media have become common parts of our everyday life. At the same time, smartphone attachment and overuse have been associated with negative implications on mental health. As a part of the development of smartphones, apps and the access to great amounts of data, the phenomenon of tracking one’s own habits is frequently occurring. This type of data gathering is called quantified self and there is a big interest in the technology. Previous research suggests that quantified self could be a powerful tool for a user wishing to improve his or her life quality. However, the effect of quantified self when put up against technology that is already effective in steering users’ behaviors, such as our smartphones, remains an unexplored subject. This study aimed to explore that subject and the questioned asked is how continuous feedback through quantified self, when presented in a mobile application, influences a smartphone user’s experience of the phone and the usage of it. In the study conducted, eight participants used the application Moment during two weeks, an application which presents the user with data about phone usage. Participants where prompted to write down daily reflections in a journal. The result shows that the app together with the journal made the participants actively reflect on their phone usage. Participants felt that their usage remained unchanged, but that the app mostly motivated them to reduce their usage. All participants thought that the app would be a good aid for those who want to reduce their smartphone usage.

Den bärbara teknikens snabba utveckling och integration i våra liv har gett upphov till en diskussion rörande teknikens negativa konsekvenser. Tidigare forskning har visat på en korrelation mellan en stor mobilanvändning och ett sämre välmående, och inom populärkulturen syns nya fenomen som digital detox och att nedgradera sin smartphone till en telefon med färre funktioner. Trots det verkar trenden tyda på att mobilanvändandet ökar. Genom konstanta aviseringar i form av korta texter innehållande olika budskap och information, s.k. notiser, kallar mobilen ofta på ens uppmärksamhet. Den här studien syftar till att undersöka hur notiserna påverkar mobilanvändningen och om det finns ett samband mellan mängden notiser som når användarna och deras övergripande mobilanvändning. För att besvara frågeställningen genomfördes strukturerade observationer av användares opåverkade mobilanvändning samt hur användningen förändrades när de inte längre nåddes av notiser. Observationerna följdes av enkäter för att ge resultatet ett kvalitativt komplement. Resultatet visade att det totala antalet skärmupplåsningar minskade medan tiden tillbringad med mobilen ökade, vilket leder till slutsatsen att då användaren nås av färre notiser blir användningssessionerna färre i antal men längre i varaktighet. Samtidigt verkade kontrollerandet av låsskärmen, d.v.s. att man väcker skärmen utan att låsa upp den, ha blivit mer frekvent. Detta för att se till att man inte missat viktig information, och då särskilt att ha missat att någon har försökt få tag på en. En absolut majoritet av deltagarna upplevde det som besvärande att inte kunna nås av notiser, och det gällde uteslutande notiser från kommunikationsapplikationer. Användarens egen inställning till notiser tycktes inte ha ett samband med hur mobilanvändningen påverkades. / The rapid development of portable technology and its integration in our way of living has led to discussions about the negative consequences of technology. Previous research has shown a correlation between major mobile phone usage and a low well-being, and within popular culture new phenomenona regarding technology has arisen, such as digital detox and to downgrade one’s smartphone to a phone with fewer features. Despite this, the trend indicates that smartphone usage is increasing. The smartphone is constantly calling for attention through notifications in form of short texts containing various announcements and information. The purpose of this study is to examine in which way notifications may affect mobile phone usage and if there is a connection between the amount of received notifications and one’s overall mobile phone usage. To investigate this, we implemented structured observations on the users unaffected smartphone usage as well as their usage when notifications were disabled. Surveys were added as a qualitative complement to the observations. The result of the study showed that the total amount of unlockings of the screen decreased while the time spent on the smartphone increased, which leads to the conclusion that when the users received fewer notifications the usage sessions became fewer in number but longer in duration. Checking the lock screen, i.e. to wake the smartphone without unlocking it, seemed to have become more frequent. This was due to that the users wanted to ensure they did not miss any important information, and in particular if someone was trying to get in touch with them. An absolute majority experienced the absence of notifications as bothersome, particularly concerning notifications from communication applications. No correlation was found between the users’ attitude to notifications and the way their smartphone usage changed.

Smartphones are omnipresent and indispensable in today’s society. Research in psychology and education points to both helpful and detrimental implications of smartphone usage for performance and well-being. Competitive and high-performance athletes represent a subsection of a demographic deeply intrenched in smartphone usage, yet few studies have shed light on the impact of smartphones usage in athletes’ lives. The overarching aim of this research was to advance knowledge on athletes’ use of smartphones. The mixed methods research program, with sequential pacing and qualitative priority, was informed by a critical realist paradigm. Data were collected through focus groups, remote tracking and surveys, and individual interviews with competitive and high-performance athletes. The research culminated in four distinct but related studies and four articles. The purpose of Study 1 was to qualitatively investigate varsity athletes’ lived experiences with smartphones. Five focus groups were conducted with a sample of 21 varsity athletes (9 men, 12 women) representing nine different sports (i.e., track and field, basketball, rowing, fencing, Nordic ski, rugby, swimming, lacrosse, and soccer). The inductive and reflexive thematic analysis led to the creation of three main themes. The first theme pertained to general usage experiences (i.e., characteristics of usage, awareness and nature of usage, restrictions of usage), revealing that social media is a focal point of athletes’ usage. The other two themes concerned athletes’ concurrent experiences of negative (i.e., stress, distraction, disengagement) and positive (i.e., self-regulation, social connectedness) smartphone usage. The majority of varsity athletes (81%) self-identified as moderate or heavy smartphone users, and relied on their devices throughout the day for communication and self-management. Findings suggest that smartphone usage exists along a continuum of negative/unhelpful to positive/helpful usage rather than as distinct “good” or “bad” usage. Usage is complex and often paradoxical for sport preparation, performance, recovery, and well-being. The purpose of Study 2 was to develop and pilot test a novel research application designed to examine, in an ecologically valid way, the prevalence and features of smartphone usage among a sample of athletes, in tandem with a selection of psychosocial variables. An interdisciplinary research team was formed to create the mobile research application and measure its tracking ability and accuracy to inform Study 3. The smartphone usage of five (n = 5) studentathletes was tracked in real-time over a 15-day period. Participants also completed a mobile self-report survey on psychosocial variables deemed important to athletes’ performance and wellbeing (i.e., mindfulness, mental health, and self-regulation). Results of the pilot study demonstrated a sizable range in total hours of smartphone usage, with an average of 31.1 hours per week, predominantly for social media. Real-time smartphone usage averages surpassed athletes’ self-reported time spent studying (20h per week) and training for sport (11.4h per week). All participants reported moderate-to-high self-regulation capacity, mindfulness, and mental health. The pilot study provided proof of feasibility for a longitudinal study using the research application and methods. It afforded the opportunity to make technical adjustments based on participant feedback, enhance usability and ecological validity, and subject the data to preliminary algorithms to extract detailed information from a large data pool. Building on Study 2, the purpose of Study 3 was to investigate the prevalence and features of competitive student-athletes’ smartphone usage and psychosocial outcomes using a longitudinal in vivo design. Over the course of one year, student-athletes’ smartphone usage was automatically tracked via the mobile app they installed on their phone and they also completed a self-report survey through the app on a monthly basis to assess self-regulation, mindfulness, mental health, stress, loneliness, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Although 20 participants volunteered to complete the study, only 10 participants consistently completed the survey and were retained in the final dataset. Descriptive analyses showed that the student-athletes used their smartphones for an average of 24.15 hours per week, predominantly for social media, and they formed two distinct user groups (i.e., heavy and light usage). Psychosocial profiles revealed they had moderate-to-high psychosocial functioning and highly nuanced changes in psychosocial outcomes and usage over time. There were no significant relationships between amount of smartphone usage and psychosocial outcomes, except for one positive relationship between usage and mental health in the winter. Findings support a new wave of literature deemphasizing a simple negative relationship between smartphone usage and psychosocial outcomes, and encourage further study of individual characteristics, such as purpose of usage. This study illustrates that although it is resource intensive, it is feasible to leverage the smartphone as an in vivo research tool to collect complex, ecologically valid usage data in tandem with psychosocial self-reports. It lays a foundation for larger-scale studies to assess the impact of athletes’ usage on their psychosocial functioning. The purpose of Study 4 was to qualitatively examine the self-regulatory processes, conditions, and outcomes related to the smartphone usage of competitive and high-performance athletes, and to postulate a model to inform research and applied practice in this area. Guided by the results of the previous studies showing prevalent social media usage among athletes, Study 4 also furthered explored athletes’ use of social media. Twenty-four (n = 24) competitive and highperformance athletes from eight different sports participated in individual, in-depth interviews. A directed content analysis, informed by the models of self-regulated learning and self-regulatory strength, was performed to analyze the data. While many themes aligned with components of both or either self-regulation models, new themes were generated. To account for all the data and explain athletes’ smartphone usage in and around the sport setting, the “Self-regulation and Smartphone Usage Model” (SSUM) was created. The SSUM includes five broad components: (a) self-regulation capacity, (b) self-regulation processes, (c) conditions (i.e., context of usage, type of usage, awareness of usage, autonomy of usage, and concurrence of usage), (d) outcomes, and (e) self-regulation competencies. Findings support a paradoxical relationship between smartphone usage and self-regulation. On the one hand, athletes use their smartphones to engage and master helpful self-regulation processes and on the other, they face increased self-regulatory demands because of their smartphones—particularly social media—which can lead to self-regulatory depletion. Overall, the current research sheds light on a new facet of competitive athletes’ livesthe smartphone. It underscores a deeply individualized, nuanced relationship between athletes and their phones, regardless of age, sex, type of sport, or competitive level. These devices can both inhibit and facilitate self-regulation and influence performance and well-being. Regardless of the purpose of usage, smartphones must be effectively managed. Thus, athletes must develop self-regulatory competencies specifically for this tool. This research shows the value of tracking real-time usage of phones and provides a conceptual map for working with athletes to leverage the benefits of smartphone technology.

Background: The emergence of mobile phones today and in history proves to beexceptionally unique in the consumer electronics market as well as the telecommunicationmarket. The reason behind the huge growth of the industry has been the exceptional evolutionof the technology used in the mobile devices in terms of performance and miniaturization. Purpose: The purpose of the research is to investigate the different stages within theconsumer decision making process and the influencing factors that have a grip overconsumers and shape the consumer behaviour towards smartphones. The study is aimed atexploring the main reasons that affect the buying decision of students regarding a specificcase, which is the iPhone product and its student users in the Swedish market. By focusing ona specific segment of the iPhone consumers, the research will present more accurate and clearresults. The theoretical perspective of the study will be using the traditional five-stagedecision-making model as a backbone thus putting the main focus of the analysis on theconsumer behaviour of the respondents. Method: Additionally, the paper will take the customers’ point of view in order to portray theinfluencing factors that exist within the consumers’ decision-making. For the purpose of thestudy, 12 iPhone users will be interviewed through semi-structured interviews and thegathered data would be analysed and coded in order to find and synthesize the results into aframework that will be developed specifically for the case. Conclusion: According to findings that were made regarding the iPhone case, there were afew factors that stood out as the most relevant when it comes to the students’ purchasedecision - brand loyalty, culture and society, perceived risk, financial influence, usage andproduct features. After the initial purchase of an iPhone which is mainly influenced by socialinfluences, it can be concluded that brand loyalty plays a key role in the repurchase behaviourof customers.

The overarching theme of the thesis was to investigate the association between smart device use and computer vision syndrome. The initial study designed and developed the Open Field Tear film Analyser (OFTA) enabling a continuous, real-time assessment of the tear film and blink characteristics during smart device use. The monocular OFTA prototype was validated and showed good intra- and inter-observer repeatability relative to the Oculus Keratograph 5M and Bausch and Lomb one position keratometer. Subsequently, tear osmolarity following engagement with reading and gaming tasks on smart device and paper platforms was investigated. Discrete measures of osmolarity pre- and post-engagement with the tasks were obtained with the TearLab osmometer; osmolarity values differed between platforms when participants were engaged in a gaming task but no such difference was observed with the reading task. In addition, the influence of repeated measurements on tear osmolarity was also explored. To simulate the habitual binocular viewing conditions normally associated with smart device use, the binocular OFTA was developed. The device was used to assess the tear film and blink characteristics whilst engaging with reading and gaming tasks on smart device and paper platforms. The results revealed differences in blink characteristics and non-invasive tear break up time between the different platforms and tasks assessed. In addition, the thesis also reports on an investigation examining the real-time accommodative response to various targets displayed on smart devices using an open-field autorefractor with a Badal lens system adaptation. The results showed that accommodative latency, accommodative lag, mean velocity of accommodation, speed of disaccommodation and mean velocity of disaccommodation varied across the different platforms. Through the use of validated subjective questionnaires and smartphone apps, the relationship between duration of smartphone use and symptoms of dry eye were examined. The findings of this study demonstrated that longer duration of smartphone and personal computer use were associated with higher risk of dry eyes as indicated by subjective questionnaire outcomes.

To be able to sleep is vital for our existence. During the process of falling asleep, many people are struggling and as an outcome, various mental health problems and sleep disorders are occurring among them. Previous studies are blaming the spreading health problems on the smartphone users for bringing their phone into their bedroom. Simultaneously, studies are showing that nocturnal smartphone usage is extremely common, with a huge spike in use during nighttime. Also, findings in studies with a different area of focus are showing that people suffering from sleep difficulties and insomnia benefits from visual stimulation and focused attention during sleep onset. This study aims to find beneficial smartphone interactions for people who are currently experiencing sleep problems. By gathering information from literature and previous studies done in the fields of insomnia, mental health problems, smartphone usage, human-computer interaction and sleep in general, the theoretical foundation of this study is laid out. To verify the previous findings and find out more about nocturnal smartphone usage, interviews and exercises with both subjective good and bad sleepers are performed. Ideas are generated and extracted through a workshop together with the collaboration partners. Visualization of the possible solution is made as a hi-fi prototype, which is later tested upon the target group of bad sleepers for three nights. In combination, the solution concept is tested together with a secondary concept through the Wizard of Oz method. The evaluation of the concepts is collected as an online form through their smartphones and the feedback from the participants is leading to a final design suggestion. This study is presenting solutions for designing for nocturnal usage, which through this study has been proven decreasing the subjective sleep onset latency among the users and in the long run will improve the user's digital well being.

Det är intressant att veta varför användare tvångsavslutar mobila appar regelbundet eftersom flera källor pekar på att det kan sluka mer batteri än om användare inte gör detta. Representanter från Google och Apple bekräftar att regelbunden tvångsavslutning på Android- och iOS-enheter kan vara batterikrävande. Relaterat till detta är hur batteriikonen är utformad i mobila operativssystem där tidigare forskning menar att användare har svårt att med säkerhet veta hur länge deras batteri kommer räcka. Det finns även forskningsrapport från 2009 som skriver att flertalet användare i deras studie inte visste att det fanns energisparande funktioner att använda sig av i operativssystemen. Min genomförda studie utgick från en förstudie som kontrollerade varför användare tvångsavslutade appar på sina mobila enheter. Det visade sig finnas flera anledningar till att användare utför regelbunden tvångsavslutning av appar på mobila enheter. Det visade sig i min förstudie att 46% av alla som deltog i förstudien tvångsavslutade appar regelbundet. Den näst största anledningen, enligt min förstudie, till regelbunden tvångsavslutning är för att användare vill ha kontroll över vilka appar som är öppna. Detta gäller för 7% alla användare som deltog. Den största anledningen till regelbunden tvångsavslutning av mobila appar är för att användarna vill spara batteri. Dessa användare utgör 28% av alla användare som deltog i förstudien. Utifrån datan från förstudien gjordes intervjuer med smartphone-användare för att ta reda på ytterligare information om hur användare tänker kring funktionen. Flera av användarna som intervjuades tvångsavslutade appar på sin smartphone och de berättar även varför de gör detta. Av de som tvångsavslutar i intervjuerna tvångsavslutar de flesta för att de tror att det sparar batteri. Denna undersökning är gjord för att få fram data kring om användare faktiskt tvångsavslutar appar på mobila enheter och varför de gör detta. Denna rapport ska vara en del i att hjälpa formgivare att designa gränssnitt utifrån denna tillhandahållna data. / I have observed some users that force-quit apps regularly. It's interesting to know why users do this because multiple sources indicate that it probably use more battery-power than not doing it. Representatives from both Google and Apple confirm that force-quitting apps regularly on Android and iOS devices may be more battery-demanding. Relative to this is how the battery-icon is designed in the mobile operative system where a research report that users have a hard time know for certainty how much battery there is left. There is also a research from 2009 that report that users in their studie did not know that there was energysaving funktions available to use in the mobile operatingsystem. My study started with a pilot study that checked why users force-quit apps on their mobile devices. There are several reasons why users force-quit apps regularly on mobile devices. It was shown in the study that 46% of all participants in the pilot-study force-quitted apps regularly on mobile devices to save battery power. My pilot-study shows that the second biggest reason for force-quitting regularly is that users want to have control over which apps are open. That is 7% of all the participants in the pilot-study. The main reason that users force-quit apps regularly is to save battery power. This category of users constitutes 28% of all the participants in the pilot-study. Based on the data from the pilot-study, interviews with smartphone users were made to find out more about what users think about this function. Multiple participants in the interviews do force-quit apps on their smartphone. They even told us why they do it. Most of the participants in the interviews that force-quit apps do it because they think it will save battery. This research is made to get data about if users force-quit apps on mobile devices and why they do it. This research report is made to help and inform designers to design interfaces from this data provided.