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Although the psychological contract has been a popular topic in managerial research for the past twenty years, recent critiques of the research in this area point to several shortcomings. These are believed to result primarily from the overwhelming use of field studies, survey questionnaires, and other correlational procedures in the study of this construct. One particular research question that has generated mixed results involves the effect that one's underlying contract (either transactional or relational) has on individuals' perceptions of contract breach and feelings of violation following an employer's breach. This study sought to gain insight into this question by using an experimental study design to assess the impact that exchange congruence — or the match between the nature of the underlying contract and the nature of the breach — has on employees' perceptions of breach and feelings of violation. An experimental design was used and data was collected from 421 subjects in six treatment groups and two control groups. The treatment groups examined the effects of withdrawal breach (without resource substitutions) and both congruent and incongruent resource substitutions in transactional and relational work contexts. Also, two control groups in which no psychological breach was induced were examined. The results of the experiment differ for the transactional and relational treatments. No significant differences in perceptions of breach or violation were found with regard to the type of breach induced among the transactional treatments. Among the relational treatments, subjects that received incongruent resource substitutions perceived significantly higher levels of breach and violation than those that received congruent substitutions. Also, among the relational treatments, levels of perceived breach were significantly higher for the incongruent substitute treatment than for the withdrawal breach treatment. Therefore, the results of this study indicate that breach perceptions and feelings of violation vary for employees depending not only on the type of contract they hold, but the type of breach that they experience. In addition, the study demonstrated that an experimental design is applicable to this literature and that it could advance our understanding of the psychological contract in ways that are not possible with cross-sectional field studies. / Ph. D.

The aim of the study is to develop knowledge about what employees in communication agencies and its customers perceive as central to the relationship. The research questions are: What do communication agencies experience as central to the relationship with customers? and What do customers experience as central in the relationship with communication agencies? Based on Social Exchange Theory (SET), supplemented with Behaviorally Driven Relationship Marketing Theory (BRM), we have investigated what is central in the communication agency– customer. As a basis for achieving our goal, we have in total conducted semi-structured interviews with nine people, six people from a communication agency and three of their customers. We have interviewed employees from both a communication agency and from customers to achieve a more nuanced view of the research problem. In our thematic analysis of our interview transcripts we found the concepts Phases in the Relationship, View of the Relationship, and Cooperation as central aspects. Through these aspects we illustrate the respondents' perceptions of what is central in the relationship. The study's results indicate that the longer the relationship is, the better the cooperation gets, which enables both parts possibilities to achieve desired product. In addition, a crucial part of this seems to be the start up phase and an equal view of the relationship. Furthermore, an ongoing relationship should be characterized with trust, commitment and two-way communication.

Att hyra kläder är ett fenomen som fått ökat intresse de senaste åren. Inte minst i forskningen där det visat sig komma med miljömässiga fördelar. Kläduthyrning är en form av cirkulär ekonomi och ett svar på textilindustrins negativa miljöpåverkan och dess linjära arbetssätt. Trots vetskapen om dessa existerar fortfarande en stor efterfrågan av nyproducerat mode, varför kläduthyrning kan vara ett hållbarare sätt att uppfylla konsumenternas behov att förnya sig. Syftet med studien är att öka förståelsen för hur konsumenter upplever kollektiv konsumtion, specifikt kläduthyrning. Med dess kvalitativa karaktär identifieras upplevda fördelar respektive nackdelar hos konsumenten samt skillnader och likheter mellan beprövade hyrkoncept. Datainsamlingen baserades på tolv semistrukturerade intervjuer med konsumenter som har erfarenhet av att hyra kläder. Respondenternas svar har analyserats genom Social Exchange Theory (SET) och sedan kategoriserats in i olika teman. Den teoretiska modellen har även stått som grund för att förstå hur konsumenterna väger fördelar och nackdelar mot varandra i valet att hyra kläder. Genom studiens identifierade teman kunde även upplevda skillnader och likheter mellan koncepten konstateras samt användas som underlag för att förstå varför konsumenterna upplever dessa olika. Utifrån respondenternas svar identifierades fem olika uthyrningsmodeller. Genom attapplicera SET urskiljdes sex hedonistiska respektive sex utilitariska motiv samt att tillit och låg risk var faktorer som spelade in. Studien kom även fram till en modifierad version av SET vilken indikerar att vissa faktorer väger tyngre än andra. Flera utilitariska faktorer sam tupplevd risk visade sig vara mer avgörande trots att konsumenterna upplevde fler fördelar gentemot nackdelar. Resultatet visade också att när konsumenter väl provat att hyra kläder är inställningen generellt positiv. Denna studie bidrar därför till en bredare kunskap om kollektiv konsumtion och affärsmodeller inom kläduthyrning. Studien kan även vara användbar i vidare forskning samt för utveckling av branschen och liknande affärsmodeller. Uppsatsens presenteras på svenska. / Renting clothes is a phenomenon that has gained increased interest in recent years, not least in the research field where one has discovered environmental benefits. Clothing rentals are part of the circular economy and is a response to the negative environmental impact caused by the linear way of working in the textile industry. Despite this knowledge, there is still a high demand for newly produced fashion. Thus, renting clothes can be a way of fulfilling consumer needs to renew themselves with less negative environmental impact. The purpose of this study is to gain further understanding of how consumers experience collaborative consumption, specifically clothing rental. With its qualitative nature, this study identifies consumers perceived advantages and disadvantages as well as differences and similarities between rental models. By conducting twelve semi-structured interviews with experienced consumers data was collected. Through the lens of Social Exchange Theory (SET), the respondents’ answers could be categorized in to different themes. The theory also worked as a tool to analyze how consumers weigh perceived advantages and disadvantages when choosing whether or not to use a rental service. Through the identified themes, perceived differences and similarities between various rental services could be determined and used as a basis for understanding why consumers experience the concepts differently. Based on the answers of the respondents’, five different rental models were identified. By applying SET six hedonistic and six utilitarian motives was found. In addition, trust and reduced risk were important factors in the consumers decision. The research also resulted in a modified version of SET that implies that some factors weight heavier than others. Several of the utilitarian motives as well as perceived risk were more decisive, despite the fact that consumers experienced more advantages than disadvantages. The result also showed that once consumers have experienced the concept of renting clothes, their attitude is generally positive. Therefore, this study contributes to deeper knowledge about collaborative consumption and business models based on clothing rental. It can also be useful in further research as well as for the development of the industry and similar business models. This report is presented in Swedish.

I Sverige har det främst undersökts synen på employee advocacy utifrån organisationens engagemang samt strategisk användning av konceptet. Den här studien undersöker det svenska perspektivet på employee advocacy via sociala medier. Syftet med studien är att undersöka tillämpningen av konceptet employee advocacy på svenska mediebyråer, genom att analysera om konceptet är medvetet tillämpad i företagen eller inte. Det andra syftet är att förstå vilka attityder chefer och medarbetare har angående employee advocacy via sociala medier. Social exchange teorin beskrivs i tidigare studier som en framgångsfaktor till en fungerande användning av employee advocacy och är den grundläggande teorin för denna studie. Studien utgår från en metodkombination med kvalitativa intervjuer med ledande personer och kvantitativa enkäter med medarbetare. Empirin visade på att inga av de fem företagen arbetar med alla framgångsfaktorer relaterad till digital employee advocacy. Den framgångsfaktorn som företagen använde sig mest av är medarbetarnas engagemang. Resultatet visade också att en del företag arbetade med tillgängligheten av publiceringsmaterial och med att chefer föregår med gott exempel. Om ledningen i ett företag ställer sig positiv till att publicera arbetsrelaterat material på privata sociala medier, är det större chans att medarbetarna också gör det. Medarbetare framhävde att de inte ville bli drivna till digital employee advocacy för att kunna bibehålla sina privata sociala medier till vad de själva önskar. I denna studie framkom det att social exchange teorin är en fungerande teori i svenska mediebyråer, men är inte fullständig och heltäckande. Den underbygger inte samtliga bakomliggande motivationsfaktorer för både medarbetarna och ledningen. / Employee advocacy has mainly been studied in Sweden from the perspectives of organizational commitment and strategic application. As a result, this study contributed to the Swedish understanding of the concept through social media. The purpose of this study is to investigate the use of employee advocacy in Swedish media agencies to determine whether it is consciously used in corporations. This is accomplished by learning about the attitudes of managers and employees toward employee advocacy on social media. The social exchange theory serves as the foundation for this study. The theory is previous described as a success factor for an effective use of employee advocacy. This study's findings are based on two methods, including qualitative interviews with senior executives and quantitative surveys answered by employees. According to the findings, none of the five companies work with all the success factors related to digital employee advocacy. The most common success factor is employee engagement. The findings also revealed that some businesses made use of the availability of publishing materials as well as managers who set a good example. When a company's management encourages the publication of work-related material on private social media, employees are more likely to follow that example. Employees expressed a desire not to be pressured into digital employee advocacy in order to maintain their personal social media accounts. The social exchange theory formed as a working theory in Swedish media agencies, however it is not complete and thorough. It does not address all underlying motivators for personnel and management.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Family Studies and Human Services / Karen S. Myers-Bowman / Is there a positive relationship between doing good and feeling well? Does demonstrating behavior that is charitable in nature lead to a greater sense of well-being? While much of the literature regarding charitable behavior is focused on the motivation for giving, relatively little is understood about the outcomes of giving behavior. Using a model developed from social exchange theory and data from the 2004 General Social Survey, structural equation modeling was employed to explore this relationship. Testing the Charitable Activity – Perceived Wellness Relationship model led to acceptance of the finding that participation in charitable activity is positively related to an individual’s self-perception of well-being. Furthermore, income, education, and having a religious orientation were found to be positively related to self-reported well-being. These effects were enhanced by participation in charitable activity. The results of this study have potential uses for financial planning practitioners, policy makers, and others with interests in family resource management issues and well-being. The possible avenues for further study include refinement of the model, development of a conceptual framework for teaching and research in family resource management, and the integration of other theories related to charitable giving such as the Identification Theory of Care and the Aquinian concept of caritas.

The bonding power of the gift has been the subject of much social scientific research. My dissertation adds to this by examining the relationship between gift giving and commitment to a social network or an employing organization. Ideas and concepts from social exchange and identity theories provide the theoretical underpinnings for this investigation. Social exchange theory views human interaction as a series of resource exchanges, and I contend that how people exchange resources may have ramifications for the bonds that develop between them and for their commitment to particular social relations. This study has two parts. In the first half of the dissertation, I ask whether the greater relational solidarity that results from direct reciprocal exchange, as opposed to negotiated exchange, differentially affects whether actors choose to leave their existing exchange networks for new ones and if so, why? Direct reciprocal exchange involves actors directly and independently giving resources to others without knowing whether the recipients of those resources will reciprocate in kind. Negotiated exchange involves actors jointly bargaining over the terms of an agreement. Differences between these two forms of exchange inform my causal argument about why actors are more like to stay in social networks if they participate in direct reciprocal exchange. I test this argument using an experiment. The second half of the dissertation continues this investigation into reciprocal exchange by examining the factors that affect gift giving in the workplace as well as the effects of gift giving on organizational commitment. Here, gift giving is defined broadly to include any act that involves people freely and independently volunteering to provide either tangible or intangible benefits to others without knowing if others will reciprocate. Data from a survey distributed to registered nurses working for a large healthcare organization provides the empirical basis for this investigation. Together the experiment and survey allow for an in-depth investigation into how exchange processes affect commitments to social networks and organizations. As such, the findings reported herein advance sociological understanding about how micro-level processes shape macro-level structures. They also speak to the practical issue of organizational retention.

Significant work has taken place in the development of our understanding of business dyadic relationships but much work remains to be done in determining the antecedents, particularly our understanding of cultural contexts. This research aims to add to the debate about what counts in developing a long-term orientation in channel relationships by investigating the role of the concept of market orientation; it explores the possible interface existing between the marketing concept and development of channel relationships. The context is relationships between distributors and suppliers in Taiwan. This study examines the relationship literature from a social exchange theoretical perspective and conducts multiple-case in-depth interviews at the dyadic ends to develop an integrated research model for analysing potential effects of market orientation on the relationship factors influencing long-term oriented relationship building. Quantitative mixed-mode questionnaire surveys were undertaken to test the research model and hypotheses drawn from the model. Data were collected from 158 distributors from four selected business sectors, including both commodity and noncommodity ones. The results confirm the applicability of the marketing concept to an eastern country: Taiwan, and provide empirical evidence that adoption of the marketing concept can be a strategy for stimulating and sustaining long-term oriented channel relationships while mediated by a number of relationship constructs. Communication and shared value are highlighted as the primary mediators while satisfaction signals an inclination to continue a relationship. Market orientation is found to exert significant direct effects on communication and shared value and indirect effects on the other relationship components: trust, cooperation, commitment, conflict and satisfaction, which all contribute to a continuing relationship.

Previous empirical research and anecdotal accounts suggest that “subclinical narcissism” or “average Joe’s narcissism” is one of the most prevalent social phenomena in many parts of the world. Research also suggests that there will be an unprecedented escalation “in average Joe narcissists” among future generations of consumers. The objective of this study is two-fold. The first objective of this study is to explore the moderating effect of the individual’s level of narcissistic personality on their word-of-mouth (WOM) communications. The second objective of this study is to explore the boundary conditions of the first objective. The data were collected from a large number of consumers through Amazon Mechanical Turk. The results support many of the hypotheses accordant with the characteristics of the subclinical narcissistic individual. Specifically, the moderating effect of an individual’s level of narcissistic personality trait on the decision to engage in different types of WOM communications varies across the tested contexts. This study is intended to respond to social scientists' recent call for studies that investigate the fundamental motives behind the individual’s propensity to engage in WOM communication as a function of individual characteristics. The results of this study provide some prescriptive guidance to help companies target appropriate consumers to increase the effectiveness of WOM communication. In addition, this study explores the effect of individual and contextual differences on consumers’ willingness to engage in different types of WOM communication.

Gratitude and indebtedness have been treated as similar constructs that occur in social exchange, but little work has examined how these constructs are independent from each other. Relatedly, how a person evaluates the components of a social exchange – the benefactor and benefit – can vary. Two exploratory studies examined affective, cognitive and behavioral measurement during a social exchange to test whether they were associated with gratitude and indebtedness. Participants completed a distribution game for which they gave and received tickets for a raffle with a fictitious partner. Study 1 (N=34) findings indicated that gratitude was associated with positive affect, but that positive affect was a better predictor of exchange behavior. Indebtedness was more closely associated with cognition and was not a significant predictor of exchange behavior. Positive affect and positive thought were associated with a positive attitude toward the exchange partner, whereas positive thought alone was associated with a positive attitude toward the benefit (i.e., raffle tickets). Study 2 (N=60) used a between-subjects variable to see if a manipulation involving the benefit affected responses. Three conditions were used: gratitude, indebtedness, or control. Participants in the gratitude and indebtedness conditions evaluated the partner and the tickets more positively compared to a control condition. Gratitude is directly associated with positive affect and inversely associated with negative cognition, whereas indebtedness is directly associated with positive affect across the three conditions. Three components of attitude were associated with the overall evaluation of the benefactor across conditions. In contrast, affect and cognition alone provided the best model for predicting overall evaluation of the benefit. Despite some of the limitations of this study (e.g., sample size), preliminary evidence suggests associations between affective and cognitive components and social exchange behavior. Limitations stemming from partial online data collection are described and discussed.