Alcohol use during pregnancy is common and its consequences often result in a broad range of negative, lifelong developmental outcomes. This study describes the effects of prenatal alcohol exposure and interacting socio-demographic factors on early childhood development. One hundred and twenty one children from the Northern Cape, South Africa, were clinically examined using standard diagnostic procedures and assessed using the Griffiths Mental Development Scales (GMDS/ER) at 7-12 months (Time 1) and 5 years of age (Time 2). Participants were assigned to either: a Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS/Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (PFAS); a Prenatal Alcohol Exposed (PAE); or a Control group based on the diagnosis at 5 years. Mothers/caregivers were interviewed to ascertain socio-demographic information, including prenatal alcohol exposure. During infancy, the FAS/PFAS group showed significantly lower gross motor and language abilities, with delays in higher-order executive functioning becoming more apparent with age. No significant differences were noted during infancy between the PAE and Control groups over any developmental subscales. However, with age, higher-order executive function delays were reported in the PAE group. Performance on the infant and child versions of the GMDS was not significantly correlated, suggesting that the tests may be measuring different developmental constructs. Lower maternal education, unemployment and later recognition of pregnancy were associated with reduced social adaptive functioning, and language and eye hand coordination abilities, irrespective of amount of prenatal alcohol exposure over both time points. Larger anthropometric birth measurements and longer duration of breastfeeding were significantly related to increased performance on the GMDS at 5 years within the groups exposed to prenatal alcohol. Socio–demographic variables are likely to complicate developmental profiles for all three groups, with prenatal and postnatal nutrition emerging as possible protective factors for positive developmental outcomes at 5 years of age.

Student Number : 0215058X - PhD thesis - School of Law - Faculty of Commerce, Law and Management / Socio-economic rights have the potential to contribute to the achievement of social justice through insisting on the satisfaction of vital material needs. However, their effectiveness in this regard is compromised when they are incapable of tangibly contributing to the satisfaction of the needs that they represent. By including justiciable socio-economic rights in the text of the 1996 South African Constitution, its drafters indicated that South Africans are entitled to demand effective relief that amounts to adequate reparation for the harm suffered through the non-satisfaction of their vital material needs. The legitimacy of the constitutional order partially depends on the ability of socio-economic rights to live up to this promise. This dissertation examines the extent of this promise and the extent to which it is currently being fulfilled, in relation to a discrete set of rights - those that operate together to achieve the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. I argue that successful reliance on healthrelated rights in litigation must, in appropriate circumstances, produce tangible benefits for individual rights-bearers. I explore the extent to which constitutional health rights may realistically be expected to render tangible benefits, examine the degree to which this potential of health rights is realised through current judicial approaches to their vindication and suggest manners in which such approaches may be modified and/or supplemented in order for tangible benefits to result more readily from successful vindication of health rights. In doing this, I attempt to show that a benefit-orientated approach to the interpretation and enforcement of health rights is not only required, but also facilitated by the Bill of Rights in the 1996 Constitution. Moreover, the Bill of Rights enables South African courts to interpret and enforce health rights in accordance with their benefit-rendering potential, without overextending judicial capabilities or transgressing the institutional boundaries of the judicial function. Courts are accordingly implored to acknowledge and affirm the justiciable nature of healthrelated rights and to adopt interpretative, evaluative and remedial practices that enable their tangible vindication in appropriate circumstances.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can assist in using information from census data to investigate questions for national and local government planning purposes, such as socio-economic profiles and needs of communities. I will be doing this on the data from the Ethiopian census, scheduled for 2006. . As no Ethiopian geo-referenced data is available at this stage. I am using the 10% sample of the South African Census 2001 data for KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), as a hypothetical population. KZN was chosen as this provides a setting with urban and rural populations, as well as mountainous and flat areas, and so is in some ways similar to Ethiopia. The questions to be asked of the Ethiopian census data are of the form: · What exists at a specific location or in a specific area? (eg what health facilities are there, what is the population)? · What access does the population have to facilities in the area? Does the road network need to be improved to resolve the problem of access · Where are groups of people in greatest need of … (eg where are there clusters of people with disabilities, and are there facilities for them) · What are the characteristics of ... (eg female headed households) and what are these related to (eg HIV/AIDS or migrant labour?) · What changes need to be made to infrastructure to increase service to communities in need? The results for the hypothetical population show that there are areas with high unemployment rates, low school attendance and education levels, high levels of female headed household, and difficulties of access to educational and health facilities. Many households do not have toilet facilities, and obtain water from rivers, which could impact on the health of the communities. Migrant workers were investigated to see if these were likely to be migrants from neighbouring countries, or from other provinces. The numbers in the hypothetical population in these cases are small, so little can be concluded from this.

While osteoporosis is a major public health concern in the developed world, little research regarding factors influencing bone mineral accrual in children has been conducted in developing countries. South Africa is of particular interest since the incidence of hip fractures in South African Blacks has been reported to be amongst the lowest in the world (32; 253). In this thesis, the association of lifestyle factors; in particular physical activity (PA), socio economic status (SES) and dietary calcium intakes on the growing skeleton of Black and White South African children is investigated. After using accelerometry to validate a physical activity questionnaire (PAQ), in a convenience sample of South African Black, White, male and female children (n=30), fitness levels were assessed in a larger group (n=69) of similarly aged children, stratified by race and gender. Fittest subjects had significantly greater physical activity scores (p=0.022) as reported on the PAQ, lower body mass index’s (BMI) (p=0.001) and least percentage body fat (p=0.001) (as assessed using Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA), than least fit subjects. White males who reported to be significantly more active than all other groups on the PAQ were significantly fitter (p<0.001) than White females and Black males and females. The next study sought to determine whether differences observed in physical activity levels between groups showed an association with bone mineral content (BMC), density (BMD) and area (BA) (as assessed using DXA). PA was analyzed in terms of a metabolic (METPA; weighted metabolic score of intensity, frequency, and duration) and a mechanical (MECHPA;sum of all ground reaction forces multiplied by duration) component for 386 children aged 9.5 (0.04) years recruited from a longitudinal birth cohort study. White children expended a significantly greater energy score (METPA of 21.7 (2.9)) than Black children (METPA of 9.5 (0.5), p< 0.001). When children were divided into quartiles according to the amount and intensity of sport played, the most active White children had significantly higher (p<0.05) whole body BMD and higher hip and spine BMC and BMD after adjustment for body size than less active children. White children in the highest MECHPA quartile also showed significantly higher (p<0.05) whole body, hip, and spine BMC and BMD after adjustment for body size than those children in the lowest quartile. No association between PA and bone mass of Black children was found. No significant differences between METPA and MECHPA quartiles and BA were observed for any group. Given the disparate backgrounds from which many South African children come, the next study sought to determine whether differences in socio-economic status between Black and White South African children influence PA patterns. This study explored the relationship between socio-economic status, PA anthropometric and body composition (via DXA) variables in 381 children aged (9.5 (0.04) years) recruited from a longitudinal birth cohort study . Children falling into the highest socio-economic status quartile had mothers with the highest educational levels, generally came from dual parent homes, were most physically active, watched less television, weighed more and had greater lean tissue than children in lower socio-economic quartiles (p<0.001). Significantly greater levels of lean mass (p<0.001) with increased activity level were observed after controlling for television watching time and fat mass. There were high levels of low physical activity and high television watching time among lower socio-economic status groups. White children were found to be more active than Black children, more likely to be offered physical education and to participate in physical education classes at school and watched less television than Black children. The final study sought to investigate the association between habitual PA patterns and dietary calcium intakes with bone mass acquisition over a one year period in 321 pre-pubertal South African children recruited from a longitudinal birth cohort study. Data were analyzed by regressing change in BMC and BA from age nine to ten years, against BA (for BMC), height and body weight. The residuals were saved and called residualized BMCGAIN and BAGAIN. Residualized values provide a good indication of weight, height and BA-matched accumulation rates. White children had significantly higher PA levels and calcium intakes than Black children. Most active White males had significantly higher residualized BMCGAIN and BAGAIN at the whole body, hip and spine but not at the radius, than those who were less active. Most active White females had significantly higher residualized BAGAIN at all sites except the radius than less-active girls. No such effects were seen in Black children. There was no interactive effect on residualized BMCGAIN or BAGAIN for calcium intake and PA in boys or Black girls, but an interactive and possible synergistic effect of calcium and physical activity was observed at the spine, radius and hip in White girls. In this population, PA has an osteogenic association with White children, but not Black children, which may be explained by the lower levels of PA in the Black children. Despite this, Black children had significantly greater bone mass at the hip and spine (girls only) (p< 0.001) even after adjustment for body size.In conclusion, differences between White and Black children’s PA levels were observed, with White children reporting higher PA levels and exhibiting higher fitness levels than Black children. Physical fitness correlated well with self reported physical activity levels on the PAQ and objectively measured body composition. Socio-economic status differences between White and Black children are highly related to differences in physical activity patterns and body composition profiles. Bone mass and area gain is accentuated in pre- and early-pubertal children with highest levels of habitual physical activity. Limited evidence of an effect of dietary calcium intakes on bone mass in boys and Black girls was found. The role of exercise in increasing bone mass may become increasingly critical as a protective mechanism against osteoporosis in both South African race groups, especially because the genetic benefit exhibited by Black children to higher bone mass may be weakened with time, as environmental influences become stronger.

Social entrepreneurship activity is very low in South Africa, especially among the youth. It is argued that favourable attitudes toward social entrepreneurship are determinants of successful social entrepreneurship that could contribute to sustainable socio-economic development amongst the youth who are still grappling with the “triple challenge” of unemployment, poverty and inequality. The primary objective of this study was to describe the attitudes of urban youth toward social entrepreneurship and to identify the constraints that the youth perceive as barriers to engaging in social entrepreneurship. The data of this study was from a survey conducted in Diepsloot, North of Johannesburg involving 153 young people. Data was collected using two self-rating questionnaires. The Social Entrepreneurial Intent Scale (SEIS), adopted from Thompson (2009), was used to measure social entrepreneurial intentions, while the Constraint scale developed by Fatoki and Chindoga (2011) was used to identify constraints. The study produced three main findings. Firstly, the majority of respondents had positive attitudes towards starting and engaging in social enterprises. Secondly, the research identified three main constraints that discourage the youth from starting or engaging in social enterprise, namely “lack of access to finance”, “lack of savings to start”, and “weak economic environment”. Thirdly, the research also identified an overall limitation to social entrepreneurship, namely; lack of support. Recommendations to reduce constraints and support social entrepreneurship were suggested.

The manufacture of the chemical ethylene, a key ingredient in plastics, currently depends on fossil-fuel-derived carbon and generates significant greenhouse gas emissions. Substituting ethylene's fossil fuel feedstock with alternatives is important for addressing the challenge of global climate change. This paper compares four scenarios for meeting future ethylene supply under differing societal approaches to climate change based on the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. The four scenarios use four perspectives: (1) a sustainability-focused pathway that demands a swift transition to a bioeconomy within 30 years; (2) a regional energy-focused pathway that supports broad biomass use; (3) a fossil-fuel development pathway limited to corn grain; and (4) a fossil-fuel development pathway limited to corn grain and corn stover. Each scenario is developed using the latest scientifically informed future feedstock analyses from the 2016 Billion-Ton report interpreted with perspectives on the future of biomass from recent literature. The intent of this research is to examine how social, economic, and ecological changes determining ethylene supply fit within biophysical boundaries. This new approach to the ethylene feedstocks conundrum finds that phasing out fossil fuels as the main source of U.S. ethylene is possible if current cellulosic ethanol production expands.

This thesis explores the experiences that birth mothers face in adoption proceedings within a socio-legal context. With analysis of data from interviews with 32 birth mothers synthesised with the relevant provisions of the Adoption and Children Act 2002, it is argued that ingrained unfairness and a lack of accountability exists in the legal and administrative system where birth mothers' rights are concerned. The requirement for fairness in adoption practice is an underlying principle of jurisprudence from the European Court of Human Rights, with emphasis on the right to family life under Article 8 of the Convention. Analysis extends to the social problems of blame and stigmatizing of birth mothers which originates from those agencies involved in the adoptions. It highlights the perspectives and voices of birth mothers, who are seldom the focus in leading discourses of professional practice in this area. This research moves some way towards equalising this disparity by acknowledging their experiences and arguing that what they have to say should be noted by professionals involved in adoption practice. The findings demonstrate the interrelationship between birth mothers and the law, with critical examination of the results in relation to previous research and jurisprudence from the family courts. This is work by a researcher with 'insider status' of one who shares the 'birth mother' identity with the participants. In order to validate the study, the research methodology is underpinned with reflexivity which demands that the researcher examines her own feelings, reactions, and motives and how this influences the analysis and the findings. This approach lessens the risk of bias and authenticates research by ensuring transparency. The original contribution to knowledge required for a doctoral thesis is the socio-legal approach to the methodology, the primary data generated from interviews with birth mothers and the subsequent findings which demonstrate the inconsistency between the law and their experiences of adoption practice.

Poverty is a historical development curse in Tanzania, which has incited extensive institutional reforms and policy changes and received numerous analyses in development research literature. Paradoxically, taking actions to study and alleviate poverty have increased with its continuing severity. A substantial body of research on poverty in the country suggests that, the vast majority of these studies focus on the content rather than the context of poverty alleviation processes. Specifically, the focus has been on: ideas, interests and struggles for resources between political leaders and bureaucrats believed to be taking place at the expense of the poor; ill-informed and unrealistic development policies and strategies; anti-development behaviour and tendencies of the peasants and their alleged conservatism and resistance to modernity, and weak incentive structures of the economy. There is little focus on the character and dynamics of the (historical) institutional context in which these economic conditions, struggles and policy initiatives emerge and take place. Motivated by the disappointing results of anti-poverty initiatives and weaknesses of previous studies, this study uses historical institutional impact analysis guided by institutionalist theory to analyse the problem. The central argument is that the existence and functioning character of institutions are necessary conditions for any human development activity. So, acceptance of the crucial importance of historically oriented institutional context analysis in understanding poverty alleviation initiatives and outcomes is imperative. The study draws on primary and secondary data collected through documentary review and interview methods to explain the ways in which institutional reforms result in an institutional order tolerant of poverty and which create conditions that perpetuate it. It does this by exploring the mode of historical institutional development and by examining the functioning character of the institutional order in respect of poverty alleviation. The study argues that achieving success in poverty alleviation related reforms is dependent on proper understanding of institutional realities of Tanzanian society and the functioning character of the existing institutional order. It proposes a reform process in which institutional legacies and their impact on society become the focus of the reform process itself. The findings indicate that, while reforms and policy changes have taken place and new patterns of behaviour introduced, the logics of institutions central to development and poverty alleviation have not, been fundamentally altered and new patterns of behaviour have simply perpetuated it. Specifically, the findings suggest: first, that institutional reforms pursued by the government are inadequate due to misconception of institutional problems of Tanzanian society; second, that the reforms have created new conditions which perpetuate poverty; and, third, that fundamental character of the functioning of the Tanzanian institutional order will need to change before such anti-poverty measures can hope to succeed. Thus, the study offers a correction to ill-informed poverty analysis by providing an alternative account of the root cause of poverty while insisting that a better understanding of the failure of poverty alleviation requires a strong focus on the historical institutional realties of the country.

En algunos países, los programas de transferencias monetarias condicionadas (PTMC) han mostrado tener impacto positivo en la salud mental de sus beneficiarios. El porgrama Juntos, el PTMC del Perú, no cuenta con estudios previos que evalúen su impacto en la reducción de la presencia de trastornos depresivo. Por ello, se evalúa la asociación entre pertenecer a un hogar beneficiario de Juntos y tener síntomas depresivos en individuos peruanos de 15 a más años. Realiza un análisis secundario de datos que incluyó a individuos elegibles de Juntos de las Encuestas Nacionales de Demografía y salud de los años 2014 hasta 2017. Se utilizó emparejamiento por puntaje de propensión para identificar individuos beneficiarios de dicho programa y controles, no beneficiarios, que sean comparables. Se estimaron razones de prevalencias (RP) y sus intervalos de confianza (IC) al 95%. Encuentra que el programa Juntos estuvo asociado a una menor prevalencia de síntomas depresivos (RP = 0,85; IC95% 0,79 a 0,94; p < 0,05). En jefes del hogar o sus parejas, la prevalencia de síntomas depresivos en beneficiarios fue menor que en no beneficiarios (RP = 0,80; IC 95% 0,72 a 0,88; p < 0,05). En otros miembros del hogar, los resultados fueron no concluyentes (RP = 1,21; IC 95% 1,00 a 1,48; p > 0,05). En adolescentes de 15-19 años aún en la escuela, ser beneficiario de Juntos estuvo asociado a una mayor prevalencia de síntomas depresivos (RP = 1,65; IC 95% 1,75 a 2,23; p < 0,05); mientras que, en los miembros restantes, Juntos estuvo asociado a una menor prevalencia de síntomas depresivos 0,82 (IC 95% 0,75 a 0,90; p < 0,05). Concluye que el programa Juntos estuvo asociado a una reducción de la probabilidad de tener síntomas depresivos en la población peruana de 15 a más años. Esta relación se mantuvo en los jefes del hogar o sus parejas, así como en quienes no fueron adolescentes de 15-19 años aún en la escuela. Así, este estudio aporta nueva evidencia acerca del potencial impacto de Juntos en los problemas de salud mental. Sin embargo, se necesita más investigación en el tema. / Tesis

The Mackenzie River Delta is an ecologically rich freshwater environment in Canada’s Northwest Territories. It is vulnerable to multiple stressors such as climate change, resource development activities (oil and natural gas) and upstream-downstream linkages related to extraction activities in the southern part of the Mackenzie River watershed. Resultant socio-ecological impacts affect fishing livelihoods, which represent a significant component of the country food system and ways of life for Inuvialuit (Inuit of the Western Arctic), whose Settlement Area overlaps with the Delta. This thesis analyzes the implications of socio-ecological changes in the Mackenzie River Delta for Inuvialuit fishing livelihoods and the country food system, drawing from Local and Traditional Knowledge. In collaboration with the Fisheries Joint Management Committee in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, the westernmost Inuit region in Canada, I undertook a participatory-qualitative research, while also drawing on relevant literature and complementary data. Using 28 semi-structured interviews about changes in the Mackenzie River Delta and the importance of fishing livelihoods, results indicated that fishing livelihoods are essential contributors to the Inuvialuit food system, as well as cultural practices surrounding fishing as an activity. Moreover, some results imply the importance of previously ignored species for food security, such as burbot and inconnu, which receive limited attention in other studies. Key findings also indicate that multiple environmental changes are occurring in the Delta, including lower water levels, increasing land erosion, decreasing fish populations, and changes in Delta-reliant wildlife populations (e.g. more beavers), warmer water temperatures, poorer fish quality (e.g. softer flesh, parasites), thinner ice, climate variability, and an escalating cost of living. These changes affect primarily fishing access and raise important concerns about the safety of fish consumption for human health. Ultimately, limited access and declining fish quality have a negative impact on food security, given the key role of fish in the country food system and the importance of socio-cultural dimensions such as fishing knowledge and skills, and sharing practices.