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The loss of biodiversity is affecting all ecosystems on Earth, one of the greatest threats to biodiversity being climate change. Forests have been highlighted for the potential to mitigate climate change by storing carbon above- and belowground in soils. In this thesis, I studied the effects of tree diversity on carbon cycling in subtropical Chinese forests. I aimed to explore the mechanisms behind tree diversity effects on carbon cycling by focusing on microbial-based processes and the consequences of tree diversity-induced spatial heterogeneity. First, my colleagues and I tested the effects of tree diversity on litterfall spatial patterns and the consequences for litter decomposition and quantified the importance of microbial community in decomposition processes. Second, we explored the effects of tree diversity on relationships between soil microbial facets and soil microbial functions. Third, we tested the effects of tree diversity on soil microbial biomass and carbon concentrations, and their mediation by biotic and abiotic conditions. Finally, we explored the consequences of diversifying forests for re-/afforestation initiatives and plantations to reduce atmospheric carbon levels, and the benefits of diversity for mitigating the effects of climate change on ecosystems and human well-being. We highlighted the positive effects of tree diversity on tree productivity. By increasing the amount and diversity of litterfall, tree diversity increased litter decomposition and subsequently the assimilation of tree products into the forest soils. Our investigation has shown the key role of microbial communities for forests carbon dynamics by carrying out litter decomposition, soil heterotrophic respiration, and soil carbon stabilization. Most notably, tree diversity effects on soil microbial respiration were mainly mediated by soil microbial biomass rather than soil microbial community taxonomic or functional diversity. The effects of tree diversity on microbial biomass were mediated by biotic and abiotic conditions. Taken together, we revealed the importance of considering space to understand biodiversity-ecosystem functioning relationships. Finally, we argued that tree diversity is a promising avenue to maximize the potential of re-/afforestation projects to mitigate increasing atmospheric carbon. Moreover, we highlighted that diversifying forests in re-/afforestation initiatives can help to reduce climate change effects on ecosystems: first, by increasing resistance and resilience to extreme climatic events, and second, by buffering microclimatic conditions in natural and urban areas. My investigation highlighted that tree diversity effects on ecosystem functioning could be explained by both mass and diversity effects on higher trophic levels and their functions. In addition, I showed the key role of tree diversity-induced spatial heterogeneity and the need to consider space and time in further research. Moreover, these results need to be combined with practitioner constraints to enable feasible restoration projects.:Summary table Bibliographic information .................................................................................... I ~ XV Main body ......................................................................................................... 1 ~ 212 Supplementary materials ..................................................................................... i ~ xv Scientific supplementary materials ............................................................. -1- ~ - 154- Table of Contents Table of figures .......................................................................................................... XI Table of scientific supplementary materials ............................................................. XIII Glossary ................................................................................................................... XV Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3 Chapter I - Tree diversity effects on litter decomposition are mediated by litterfall and microbial processes .................................................................................................. 35 Transition I - II ........................................................................................................... 67 Chapter II - Tree diversity and soil chemical properties drive the linkages between soil microbial community and ecosystem functioning................................................ 71 Transition II - III ....................................................................................................... 107 Chapter III - Abiotic and biotic drivers of scale-dependent tree trait effects on soil microbial biomass and soil carbon concentration ................................................... 111 Transition III - IV ..................................................................................................... 155 Chapter IV – Diverse forests are cool: promoting diverse forests to mitigate carbon emissions and climate change ............................................................................... 159 General discussion ................................................................................................. 173 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 195 General acknowledgments ..................................................................................... 209 Supplementary materials ..............................................................................................i

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The urgent issue with a changing climate has shed a light on the agricultural system and related climate mitigatory opportunities. One natural climate solution that has reached a lot of attention during the later years is carbon sequestrations in soils. The pedosphere, the outermost layer of the earth, constitute a great carbon pool and does therefore possibly provide big opportunities to adjust carbon levels in the atmosphere. Several measures can be utilized to enhance carbon levels in soils but could possibly imply additional negative impacts on other sustainability aspects. One of these are biodiversity, which are a trait strongly connected to semi-natural grasslands. This study therefore presents an overview of the knowledge regarding carbon sequestration on semi-natural grasslands, framed in a Swedish context. Conflicts and synergies between the climate aspect and other values of semi-natural grasslands are here investigated. Firstly, a lack of reliable Swedish data was identified and problems with extrapolating data from international studies regarding soil carbon sequestration were pointed out, especially in the context of semi-natural grasslands and biodiversity. The report shows that Swedish semi-natural grasslands have a low level of carbon sequestration and moreover a low opportunity to act as a climate mitigator. Biodiversity is often a more prioritized factor for these lands and often interpreted as a hinder for climate mitigatory measures. There are, however, possible opportunities to improve the climatic impact these lands have, depending on several aspects, but do often require a broad system perspective. Synergies between climate and biodiversity were difficult to identify except the questioned statement that grazers possibly could enhance soil carbon sequestration and at the same time provide biodiversity benefits. Conflicts were based on difficulties in implementation of sequestration enhancing measures since they often, locally, implied impoverished biodiversity. / Klimatförändringar är ett aktuellt problem som även satt fokus på jordbrukets roll och dess möjligheter att minska dess koldioxidutsläpp och dämpa den globala uppvärmningen. En av de möjliga naturliga klimatlösningarna är att lagra kol i jorden. Pedosfären, jordskorpans yttersta skikt, är en stor kol-pool och utgör därför potentiellt en god möjlighet till att minska koldioxidhalten i atmosfären. Det finns flertalet möjligheter att öka kolinlagringen i jorden men dessa kan dock innebära negativa konsekvenser av andra hållbarhetsaspekter. En av dessa är biologisk mångfald, som är något som naturbetesmarker är starkt kopplade till. Denna studie presenterar en översikt över kolinlagring i naturbetesmarker i en svensk kontext. Konflikter och synergier mellan kolinlagring och andra värden av naturbetesmarker tas även upp. Först kan det nämnas att det finns osäkerheter i data från svenska naturbetesmarker och att data av kolinlagring från internationella studier ofta är svåra att extrapolera till svenska marker. Det fanns även få studier som behandlade både klimatperspektivet och biologisk mångfald på naturbetesmarker. Rapporten visar även att svenska naturbetesmarker har en låg nivå av kolinlagring och därmed en låg möjlighet att agera som en mildrande faktor gällande ett förändrat klimat, där en anledning är den begränsande totala ytan som finns definierad som naturbetesmark. Däremot finns det möjligheter att förändra klimatavtrycket dessa marker genererar. I en sådan ansats bör man inkludera en rad olika faktorer och använda ett brett systemperspektiv för vidare analys. Synergier är svåra att identifiera, bortsett från en ifrågasatt åsikt om att betande djur potentiellt båda kan bidra till biologisk mångfald och öka kolinlagringen på den betande marken. Konflikter utgörs ofta av svårigheten att många potentiellt kolinlagrande åtgärder hade direkt negativa konsekvenser för den biologiska mångfalden lokalt.

Peatlands in the sub-humid Boreal Plains of Alberta exist at the limit of their climatic tolerance and are vulnerable to wildfire. This is especially true at the interface between the peatland and forestland (margins) due to water table fluctuation resulting in high peat bulk density and low moisture content during dry periods in some peatland systems. Deep burning at the margins may reduce a peatland's ability to recover to its previous state, leading to a reduction in area and/or collapse following fire, and bringing into question the long-term stability of Boreal Plains peatlands on the landscape under current and future climate predictions. Previous research has identified small peatlands located at a mid-topographic position on coarse sediments as hotspots for deep burning, as these peatlands are not regularly connected to regional groundwater flow. The ability of these peatland systems to recover lost carbon from both the interior and margin within the fire return interval, however, has not yet been investigated. This thesis further examines the relationship between surficial sediment assemblages and the impact of wildfire on overlying peatlands through assessment of organic soil carbon accumulation following wildfire across the Boreal Plains landscape. Peatland organic soil recovery along a chronosequence was assessed in the interior and margin of 26 ombrotrophic bogs located at various positions on the post-glaciation landscape of Northern Alberta using estimates of organic soil carbon accumulation calculated through loss on ignition of peat above the uppermost charcoal layer in peat cores from each site, as well as characterization of peat properties along a transect from the adjacent forestland into the peatland interior. Soil organic carbon accumulation with time since fire was greater in studied peatland interiors than margins. Underlying sediments were found to have little effect on total soil organic carbon accumulation in the interior and margins of the studied peatlands, indicating that organic soil carbon accumulation rates following wildfire estimated in this study can be extended to ombrotrophic bogs across the Boreal Plains landscape. Though total soil organic carbon accumulation following wildfire does not appear to be influenced by hydrogeological setting, the ability of a peatland to recover the quantity of carbon lost within the fire return interval will be dependent on the amount of carbon which was released through smouldering, which is influenced by hydrogeological setting for peatland margins. Based on published measurements of organic soil carbon loss during wildfire and organic soil carbon accumulation rates estimated in this thesis, peatlands located at topographic lows on coarse grained glaciofluvial outwash sediments or on low-relief, fine grained sediment deposits from glaciolacustrine or subglacial paleoenvironments are predicted to be resilient to wildfire on the Boreal Plains landscape. Peatlands which experience severe smouldering at the margins, such as ephemerally perched systems on glaciofluvial outwash sediments, will likely undergo permanent loss of legacy carbon stores. The resilience of peatlands which are perched above regional groundwater on glaciofluvial outwash or stagnant ice moraine deposits is unknown at this time; further investigation into water table dynamics, margin peat properties, and smouldering depths in these systems is required. Identification of peatland systems which are at risk of permanent carbon loss at the margins and those which are most resilient to wildfire in this thesis can be applied to wildfire management strategies and the design of peatland systems for reclamation of oil sands leases. The stability of natural and created peatlands through time on a landscape where wildfire is frequent is an important consideration in terms of both lasting ecosystem services and the potential risk to fire suppression and community safety that vulnerable systems pose. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Soil carbon dioxide efflux resulting from microbial and root respiration is a major component of the forest carbon cycle. We undertook this investigation to better understand the nature of soil carbon dioxide efflux of plantation loblolly pine, an important ecological and economical resource in the southeastern United States. Specifically, we hoped to learn how soil carbon dioxide efflux differs both spatially and temporally for four age classes of plantation loblolly pine on the Virginia piedmont. During a 12-month period, soil carbon dioxide efflux was repeatedly measured for four age classes of plantation loblolly pine using a dynamic, closed-chamber infrared gas analyzer. The age classes examined were 1- to 2-year-old, 4- to 6-year-old, 8- to 12-year-old, and 20- to 25-year-old stands. Mean soil carbon dioxide efflux rates measured during the 12-month study were 1.72, 2.58, 2.84, and 2.90 micromole/sq m/s for 1- to 2-year-old, 4- to 6-year-old, 8- to 12-year-old, and 20- to 25-year-old stands, respectively. Stand age had a significant effect on efflux rate during 10 of the 12 monthly sampling sessions. Additionally, mean efflux rates were consistently higher near the tree and a significant positional difference was detected during 8 of the 12 monthly sampling sessions. Mean soil carbon dioxide efflux rates, by position, for the 12-month study were 2.72 and 2.28 micromole/sq m/s for the near and away measurement positions, respectively. Based on monthly mean soil carbon dioxide efflux rates, annual carbon losses were estimated at 651, 976, 1074, and 1082 g C/sq m/yr for 1- to 2-year-old, 4- to 6-year-old, 8- to 12-year-old, and 20- to 25-year-old stands, respectively. Regression analysis was used to examine the influence of soil and climatic factors on seasonal changes in soil carbon dioxide efflux. The most influential factors affecting soil carbon dioxide efflux during the 12-month study were soil temperature, soil moisture, stand age, and measurement position. We believe respiring roots significantly influence soil carbon dioxide efflux of plantation loblolly pine and account for differences observed between stands of different ages as well as spatial differences observed within a given stand. / Master of Science

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Soils of semi-arid regions generally have low organic matter contents, primarily attributed to prevailing climatic conditions. Yet, the spekboom thicket, located in the semi-arid region of the Eastern Cape (South Africa) has been distinguished to accumulate large amounts of soil carbon. To further understand this remarkable accumulation, a detailed investigation was carried out to evaluate the distribution, speciation and stability of the soil carbon from directly beneath spekboom (Portulacaria afra) and other “nonspekboom” vegetation within the intact thicket, and from adjacent, degraded (overgrazed), open thicket sites. In the first experimental chapter, the distribution of organic and inorganic C, as well as general soil properties (pH, EC, exchangeable and water soluble cations, hydrophobicity, water stable aggregates) were investigated in the intact (spekboom and nonspekboom) and degraded (open) thicket soils. There were no significant differences in the C content (organic or inorganic) between the spekboom and nonspekboom sites in the intact thicket. Soil organic carbon (SOC) content however was greatly influenced by thicket degradation, whereas, inorganic C remained unaffected. Mean organic C (0-50 cm) ranged from 19-34, 22-62, and 19-58 g C kg-1 for open, spekboom, and nonspekboom sites, respectively. Whereas, mean inorganic C ranged from 2-9 g C kg-1 irrespective of sites, representing 4-22 % of total soil C. However, no significant differences were detected between degraded and intact sites for all (total, organic and inorganic) C stocks, attributed to variation in bulk density. Spekboom soils contained significantly higher concentrations of exchangeable and water soluble Mg, Na, and K, and consequently had higher pH and EC compared to the other sites. Soils tended to be hydrophobic especially at shallower depths in the intact thicket irrespective of vegetation type, whereas soils from the adjacent open sites were not significantly hydrophobic. Macro-aggregates were considerably more stable under intact sites compared to open sites. The second experimental chapter investigated the effects of degradation and vegetation type on the stability and structural chemistry of SOC. This involved partitioning the soil organic matter into particulate and mineral-bound (stable) fractions, and then examining the relationships between the stable organic C fraction and various soil properties as an attempt to elucidate the stabilization mechanism(s). Particulate organic C ranged from 7.0, 9.3, and 14.4 g C kg-1 for open, spekboom, and nonspekboom respectively; representing 22-34 % of total SOC. Stable (mineral-bound) organic C accounted for the largest fraction ca. 60-66 % of total SOC; 28.0 and 26.2 g C kg-1 for spekboom and non-spekboom respectively, versus 17.2 g C kg-1 for open sites. It was concluded that SOC stability was influenced by the inherent residue quality (recalcitrance) rather than soil properties, attributed to the aliphatic (lipids and waxes) and highly aromatic nature of the spekboom litter substrate and particulate OM. These research findings are of fundamental significance in understanding soil organic matter stabilization in semi-arid environments. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gronde van semi–ariede streke het oor die algemeen 'n lae organiese materiaalinhoud, wat hoofsaaklik aan die heersende klimaatstoestande toegeskryf kan word. Tog, het die spekboomruigtes, geleë in die semi-ariede streek van die Oos-Kaap (Suid Afrika), onderskeidelik groot hoeveelhede grondkoolstof geakkumuleer. Om hierdie merkwaardige akkumulasie verder te verstaan, was 'n gedetailleerde ondersoek uitgevoer om die verspreiding, spesiasie en stabiliteit van die grondkoolstof direk onder spekboom (Portulacaria afra) en ander “nie-spekboom” plantegroei binne die intakte ruigte en van die aangrensende gedegradeer (oorbeweide), oop gras areas te evalueer. In die eerste eksperimentele hoofstuk, is die verspreiding van organiese en anorganiese C, sowel as algemene grondeienskappe (pH, uitruilbare en wateroplosbare katione, hidrofobisiteit, water-stabiele aggregate) was in die intakte (spekboom en nie-spekboom) en degradeerde (oop) ruigtes ondersoek. Daar was geen betekenisvolle verskille in die C-inhoud (organies of anorganies) tussen die spekboom en nie-spekboom gronde in die intakte ruigtes gevind nie. Grond organiese koolstof (GOK) inhoud is grootliks deur die ruigte se agteruitgang beïnvloed, maar anorganiese C-voorrade was egter nie beïnvloed nie. Die gemiddelde organiese C-inhoud (0-50 cm) het van 19-34, 22-62 en 19-58 g C kg-1 onderskeidelik vir 'n oop, spekboom, en nie-spekboom areas gewissel. Die anorganiese C-inhoude het vanaf 2-9 g C kg-1 gewissel, ongeag van ligging, wat 4-22 % van die totale grond C uit maak. Daar is egter geen beduidende verskille tussen vervalle en heel terreine vir almal (totaal, organiese en anorganiese) C aandele opgespoor, toegeskryf word aan die variasie in die massadigtheid. Spekboom gronde het beduidende hoër konsentrasies van uitruilbare en wateroplosbare Mg, Na, en K waardes bevat. Dit het ook hoër pH en EC, in vergelyking met die ander areas gehad. Gronde was geneig om hidrofobies te wees, veral op vlakker dieptes in die intakte ruigte, ongeag van die plantegroei, terwyl die gronde van die aangrensende oop areas nie beduidend hidrofobies was nie. Makro grond aggregate was aansienlik meer stabiel onder intakte ruigtes as in die oop areas. Die tweede eksperimentele hoofstuk het die gevolge van die weiding-geïnduseerde degradasie en tipe plantegroei op die stabiliteit en strukturele chemie van GOK ondersoek. Dit het die skeiding van die grond organiese materiaal in die vrye en mineraalgebonde (stabiele) fraksies behels. Daarna is die verhoudings tussen die stabiele organiese C fraksie en verskeie grondeienskappe ondersoek om die stabiliseringmeganisme(s) uit te lig. Die chemiese aard van die blare, plante oorblyfsels, fyn en minerale gebinde organiese C is met behulp van spektroskopie ondersoek. Vrye organiese C voorraad het van 7.0, 9.3, en 14.4 g C kg-1 vir oop, spekboom, en nie-spekboom onderskeidelik gewissel, wat ongeveer 23-34% van die totale GOK verteenwoordig. Stabiele (minerale gebind) organiese C-voorrade is vir die grootste fraksie ca. 60-66% van die totale GOK verantwoordelik. Dit was 28.0 en 26.2 g C kg-1 onderskeidelik vir spekboom en nie-spekboom, teenoor 17.2 g C kg-1 vir 'n oop area. Die mineraalgebonde GOK het geen noemenswaardige korrelasies met die ondersoekte grondeienskappe getoon nie. Dus is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat GOK stabilisering eerder deur die plante oorblyfsel se chemiese kwaliteit beïnvloed word. Strukturele chemiese karakterisering (13C CP-MAS KMR) van die spekboom afval en vrye C fraksie het gewys dat weerspannigheid die mees prominente meganisme van koolstof stabilisering van organiese koolstof in die gronde is. Dit word aan die alifatiese (lipiede en wasse) en sterk aromatiese aard van die spekboom substrate toegeskryf. Hierdie ondersoek het tot die fundamentele kennis van grond organiese materiaalstabilisering in 'n semi-ariede omgewings bygedra.

Thesis (MScAgric (Soil Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Lesotho is a country with an international reputation for the severe degree of soil erosion in its landscape. Despite several national soil conservation projects, soil erosion continues at an astounding rate. One of the reasons for this is possibly that the interactions between soil properties and erosion in Lesotho are not understood. Soil erosion is a site specific, cyclic phenomenon, controlled by geomorphological thresholds. To control soil erosion, the processes and soil properties which influence soil erosion in the specific place must be understood. In this study the soil properties of a highly eroded sub-catchment in Maphutseng, Lesotho was investigated. The gully extent in the sub-catchment, in 1957 and 2004 respectively, was mapped from aerial photos. These maps show where in the landscape gullies developed during this time. The gully maps were superimposed on maps of several soil erosion factors, to correlate the spatial distribution of the erosion factors with that of the gully distribution. A soil map was especially drawn for this. The spatial analysis shows that gully development between 1957 and 2004 was primarily confined to the area where duplex soils occur. The rest of the sub-catchment underwent negligible differences in gully extent during this time. The initiation of the gullies on the duplex soil area is ascribed to tunnel erosion. The high dispersibility of the duplex soil samples, sink holes which occur in this area and previous observations by researchers in this area gave evidence to this hypothesis. In the second part of the study the soil properties of seventeen soil profiles from across the study site were analysed. The difference in gully distribution between the duplex soils area and the rest of the catchment is ascribed to the high dispersibility of the duplex soils. No strong correlations could be found between the dispersion index and other determined soil properties. Segmented quantile regression was used to analyse the data further. Soil samples with moderate levels of total carbon (1.17%), iron oxide (0.9%) and effective cation exchange capacity (13.7 cmolc/kg), have below average dispersibility. When none of these stabilising agents are present in moderate amounts, soils with even low exchangeable sodium percentage values (0.68%) are dispersive. Furthermore, soils which have developed in colluvial material from basaltic origin were found to be less dispersive, presumably because of the amorphous clay minerals present in the volcanic material. The colour and increase in clay content between the A and B horizons of a soil can indicate the tunnel erosion potential of the soil. Dark coloured soils (values less than 4 and chromas less than 3) were found to have low dispersibility and free water can accumulate in the subsoils where the B horizon has much more clay than the A horizon. The accumulation of free water in the subsoil is necessary for tunnel formation. Thus soils with dark colours and/or a low clay accumulation index have low tunnel erosion potential. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Lesotho is ‘n land met ‘n internasionale reputasie vir die ernstige graad van gronderosie waaronder die landskap gebuk gaan. Ten spyte van verskeie nasionale grondbewaringsprojekte duur die erosie teen ‘n verstommende tempo voort. Een van die redes hiervoor is heel moontlik dat die interaksies tussen grondeienskappe en erosie in Lesotho nie verstaan word nie. Gronderosie is ‘n plekspesifieke, sikliese verskynsel, wat deur geomorfologiese drempelwaardes beheer word. Om gronderosie te bekamp moet die prosesse en grondeienskappe wat gronderosie in die spesifieke plek beïnvloed, geïdentifiseer en verstaan word. In hierdie studie is die grondeienskappe van ‘n hoogs geërodeerde opvanggebied in Maphutseng, Lesotho ondersoek. Die dongaverspreiding in die opvanggebied, in 1957 en 2004 respektiewelik, is vanaf lugfoto’s gekarteer. Die kaarte wys waar in die landskap dongas gedurende hierdie tyd ontwikkel het. Die dongakaarte is op kaarte van verskeie gronderosie faktore gesuperponeer om die ruimtelike verspreiding van die erosie faktore met die donga verspreiding te korreleer. ‘n Grondkaart is spesiaal vir hierdie doel opgestel. Hierdie analise het gewys dat donga-ontwikkeling tussen 1957 en 2004 hoofsaaklik op die area waar dupleks gronde voorkom plaasgevind het. Die res van die opvanggebied het weinig verskille in donga verspreiding in hierdie tyd ondergaan. Die ontstaan van die dongas in die dupleksgronde word toegeskryf aan tonnelerosie. Die hoë dispergeerbaarheid van die dupleks grondmonsters, sinkgate wat in die area voorkom en vorige waarnemings deur navorsers in die area verleen bewyse aan hierdie hipotese. In die tweede deel van die studie is die grondeienskappe van sewentien grondprofiele van regoor die opvanggebied ontleed. Die verskil in donga verspreiding tussen die dupleksgrond area en die res van die opvanggebied is toeskryfbaar aan die hoë dispergeerbaarheid van die dupleks gronde. Geen sterk korrelasies is tussen die dispersiwiteits indeks en ander bepaalde grondeienskappe gevind nie. Gesegmenteerde kwantiel regressie is gebruik om die data verder te ontleed. Hierdie ontleding het gewys dat grondmonsters met matige vlakke van totale koolstof (1.17%), ysteroksied (0.9%) en effektiewe katioonuitruilkapasiteit (13.7 cmolc/kg), ondergemiddelde dispergeerbaarheid toon. Waar nie een van hierdie stabiliserings agente in matige hoeveelhede voorkom nie, is selfs gronde met baie lae uitruilbare natriumpersentasie waardes (0.68%) dispersief. Daar is ook gevind dat gronde wat vanuit kolluviale basaltiese afsettings ontwikkel het, minder dispersief is. Die kleur en verskil in klei persentasie tussen die A en B horison van ‘n grond kan as aanduiding dien van die grond se potensiaal vir tonnelerosie. Donker grondkleure (waarde laer as 4 en chroma laer as 3) wys op ‘n lae dispersiwiteit terwyl vrywater in die ondergrond van gronde waar die B horison veel meer klei as die E horison bevat kan akkumuleer. Die aansameling van vrywater in die ondergrond is noodsaaklik vir tonnelvorming. Dus het donker gronde en gronde met ‘n lae klei akkumulasie indeks ‘n lae potensiaal vir tonnelerosie.

As mudanças no uso da terra tais como a conversão de ecossistemas naturais em agro ecossistemas, provocam alterações significativas na dinâmica da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS); bem como é responsável pela crescente emissão de gases causadores do efeito estufa no Brasil, representando cerca de 20% do total das emissões. Nos últimos 30 anos, essa prática tem ocorrido de forma mais intensa no arco do desmatamento da Amazônia, particularmente nos Estados de Rondônia e Mato Grosso. Assim o objetivo principal desta pesquisa foi avaliar variações nos estoques de carbono do solo, devido à mudança do uso da terra para pastagens na região Sudoeste da Amazônia. Os objetivos específicos foram: quantificar alguns atributos químicos e físicos do solo, os estoques de carbono do solo e do carbono remanescente, pela abordagem isotópica, da área de floresta nativa e aquelas transformadas em pastagens. A área de estudo (7 ° e 18 °S; 50 ° e 67° W) está localizada nos Estados de Rondônia e Mato Grosso. Os solos avaliados foram Latossolos, Argissolos e Neossolos, representando 75% da área total dos dois Estados. A seleção dos locais de amostragem foi realizada a partir da divisão preliminar da área total em 11 ecorregiões biogeoclimáticas, com posterior sorteio aleatório das cidades. As amostragens de solos foram realizadas entre Junho/Julho de 2007, em cinco situações distintas: vegetação nativa (floresta, cerrado e cerradão) (NA), pastagem (PA) sob diferentes manejos, culturas perenes (PE), áreas sob cultivo convencional (PC) e plantio direto (PD). O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com cinco repetições. As amostras de solo foram coletadas nas seguintes camadas: 0-5, 5-10, 10-20 e 20-30 cm. Os resultados indicaram que o sistema PD decresceu o pH do solo nas camadas mais profundas. Para todos os tratamentos, pH demonstrou o predomínio de cargas negativas. A densidade do solo foi maior nas pastagens degradadas. Os teores de carbono apresentaram correlação positiva com os teores de argila+silte em todas as profundidades do solo para os diferentes sistemas de uso da terra. Na camada 0-30 cm, PC apresentou uma tendência de aumento dos estoques de carbono (51,46 Mg ha-1), seguido por PD (48,76 Mg ha-1), PA (46,75 Mg ha-1) e PE (46,75 Mg ha-1), ainda que diferenças significativas entre as áreas não foram encontradas. Na floresta, os valores de 13 C mostraram variação de -28 a -26 com o aumento da profundidade do solo, enquanto na pastagem a variação 13 C foi menor do que na floresta (-22 a -24 ), devido possivelmente à presença de carbono remanescente da floresta nas camadas mais profundas do solo. A idade das pastagens não influenciou diretamente o acúmulo de carbono do solo, assim como o maior estoque de carbono encontrado na pastagem com 18 anos de uso. A textura do solo (30-60% argila+silte) determinou a maior taxa anual de estoques de carbono (2,14 Mg ha-1 ano-1) no tratamento PD. A diferença entre o estoque de carbono estimado pelo software ArcGis 9.0 e o encontrado neste estudo foi 0,53 Mg-1 ha-1 para os diferentes tipos de solo e vegetação. / Land use changes such as conversion of natural ecosystems to agro ecosystems are shown to cause alterations in the transformations of soil organic matter (SOM), as well they are responsible for crescent emissions of greenhouse gases (GEE), therefore representing around 20% of total GEE emissions. Over the last 30 years, land deforestation has occurred more intensively in the deforestation arc of Amazonian, particularly in the States of Rondônia and Mato Grosso. The main objective of this research was to evaluate variations in the soil carbon stocks, due to land conversion of native forest to pastures in the Southwest Amazonian region. The specific objectives were to measure some chemical and physical soil attributes, carbon stocks and the remaining soil carbon, through isothopic technique, from the native forest and that incorporated by land use to pastures. Study site (7° and 18° S; 50° and 67° W) was located in the States of Rondônia and Mato Grosso. Soils used in this study were Latosols, Argisols and Neosols, which cover 75% of the total area of both States. The choice of sampling areas was based on a preliminary division of total area in 11 biogeoclimatic region, followed by randomized selection of cities. Soil samplings were realized during June/July 2007, according to five treatments: native forest (forest, savanna and cerradão) (NA), pasture (PA) under different managements, perennial crops (PE), areas under no tillage (PC) and tillage management (PD). Experimental design was randomized with five replications. Soil samples were collected in the following soil layers: 0-5, 5-10, 10-20 and 20-30 cm. Results showed that PD decreased pH in the deeper soil layers. For all treatments pH illustrated a dominance of negative charge. Soil density was found to be highest in the degraded pastures. Carbon contents showed a positive correlation with the clay+silt contents for all soil layers in the different land uses. In the 0-30 cm layer, PC management showed a tendency to increase soil carbon stocks (51,46 Mg ha-1), followed by PD (48,76 Mg ha-1), PA (46,75 Mg ha-1) and PE (46,75 Mg ha-1), although significant differences among study sites were not found. In the forest, 13 C values showed a variation from -28 to -26 in the soil depth; while in the pasture 13 C variation was lower than in the forest (-22 a -24 ), probably due to the presence of remaining carbon from the forest in the deeper soil layers. The age of pastures did not influence directly the accumulation of soil carbon, as well the highest carbon stock was found in the pasture with 18 years of use. Soil texture (30-60% clay+silt) determined the highest annual rate of carbon stocks (2,14 Mg ha-1 ano-1) in the PD management. The difference between carbon stock estimated by ArcGis 9.0 software and that found in this study was 0,53 Mg-1 ha-1 for all different soil types and vegetation.

Durante o processo de decomposição da matéria orgânica do solo (MOS) ocorre a formação de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) que são liberados para a atmosfera contribuindo para o aquecimento global. Acredita-se que este aquecimento global possa retroagir na taxa de decomposição da MOS potencializando a liberação de carbono (C) do solo. A MOS está distribuída em frações com sensibilidades diferentes à temperatura. Pesquisas anteriores sugerem que a fração de C mais velha e mais recalcitrante é menos sensível à temperatura (C-recalcitrante). Além disso, alguns mecanismos de proteção física, química e bioquímica podem agir para reduzir a sensibilidade da MOS ao aumento de temperatura. Possíveis modificações na estrutura da comunidade microbiológica, provocadas pelo aumento de temperatura, podem interferir no processo de decomposição da MOS através de alterações nos seus mecanismos de proteção. A mudança do uso da terra é um dos principais responsáveis pela emissão dos GEE no Brasil. A substituição da vegetação original (floresta) por pastagem promove uma modificação no sinal 13C do C do solo, dando um indício sobre a origem do C liberado na forma de CO2. Com o objetivo de avaliar a vulnerabilidade da MOS ao aumento de temperatura foram realizadas incubações de solos, oriundos de floresta e pastagens, em duas temperaturas 25 e 35 ºC. Avaliou-se a sensibilidade dos compartimentos C-lábil e C-recalcitrante da MOS à temperatura e, como as possíveis alterações nos mecanismos de proteção da MOS podem contribuir com a liberação de CO2 à atmosfera. / Soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition emits greenhouse gases to the atmosphere and this may contribute to global warming. Global warming can promote a positive feedback on SOM decomposition rate and it can increase soil C losses. The SOM has different pools with inherent temperature sensitivity. Some researches suggest that resistant soil C is less sensitive to temperature increase. Moreover, there are some physical, chemical and biochemical mechanisms that protect SOM against decomposition. The global warming may change the soil microbial structure and it can modify SOM decomposition. In Brazil, the greenhouse gas emissions are basically driven by the land use change. The substitution of native vegetation (forest) to pasture changes soil C signature - 13C and this fact enable us to study the source of soil C emissions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the SOM vulnerability to temperature increased. Forest and pastures soil samples were incubated under 25 and 35 ºC. The labile-C versus resistant-C temperature sensitivity was evaluated and the SOM protection mechanisms were studied to understand how they can protect SOM against decomposition.