Orientador: Celso Valentim Santilli / Banca: Rodrigo Fernando da Costa Marques / Banca: Eduardo José Nassar / Resumo: A produção de aluminas com distribuição de tamanho e volume de poros controlados pela separação de fases líquido-sólido é um assunto emergente na área de cerâmicas porosas. As aluminas foram produzidas pelo processo sol-gel acompanhado de separação de fases, usando o óxido de polietileno (PEO) como agente indutor na separação de fases e o óxido de propileno para a gelatinização, para isso foram estabelecidas condições de controle cinético e termodinâmico desses eventos, através do controle do tempo de agitação e temperatura no meio reacional. Foram otimizadas rotas de síntese através do ajuste dos parâmetros de preparação variando a concentração do agente direcionador de poros PEO durante a transição sol-gel. Esta transformação foi acompanhada in-situ por SAXS revelando que o crescimento de objetos fractais com dimensionalidade de 1,7, que é característico do mecanismo e agregação controlado pela difusão. A calcinação em 700°C possibilitou a produção de aluminas da fase gama (-Al2O3) com textura porosa formada por macro e mesoporos. O uso do agente direcionador de poros PEO em proporção molar entre 0,01-0,07 mostrou-se eficiente no ajuste da macro-mesoporosidade. Entretanto quando se emprega proporções molares de PEO acima de 0,07 obtém-se apenas famílias de mesoporos com um decaimento do volume específico de poros quando a proporção molar aumenta de 0,08 para 0,1. Estas aluminas mesoporosas apresentaram maior área superficial especifica (Área BET máximo de  305 m²/g) e uma melhor relação OH/-O-Al em comparação com as macro-mesoporosas. / Abstract: The production of alumina with volume and size distribution of pores controlled by phase separation induced by the addition of the polymer polyethylene oxide (PEO) during synthesis is an emerging issue in the area of functional ceramics. The aluminas were produced by the sol-gel process followed by phase separation, and the PEO as inducing agent phase separation and propylene oxide to gelation. Conditions for kinetic and thermodynamic control over these events were kept by controlling the stirring time and temperature in the reaction medium. Synthesis routes have been optimized by adjusting the preparation parameters varying the concentration of pores directing agent (PEO) during sol-gel process. This transformation was accompanied by in-situ SAXS and the results reveal the growth typical of fractal objects starting from a diluted solution, whose dimensionality in the Porod region was 1,7, characteristic of aggregation controlled by diffusion and the distances between the growing particles is around 2,95 nm. Gamma alumina (-Al2O3) with diversified porous texture and macro-mesopores was obtained with thermal treatment up to 700 ° C, being supported by several techniques. The macro-mesoporosity can be adjusted by PEO driver pores agent in a molar ratio from 0,01 to 0,07. Molar ratios of PEO above 0,07 produces only mesopores, decreasing the cumulative volume of this pores when the molar ratio increases from 0,08 to 0,1. These mesoporous aluminas had higher specific surface area (BET Area  305 m² / g) and better ratio OH/O-Al compared to the macro-mesoporous. / Mestre

Thesis (PhD (Chemistry and Polymer Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / In this thesis the main capillary electrodriven chromatographic techniques (i.e. Capillary Electrochromatography CEC, Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography MEKC and Microemulsion Electrokinetic Chromatography MEEKC) were compared in terms of column manufacturing, fundamental chromatographic performance, and some applications were developed. The first stage of this thesis aimed at developing improved packed and open tubular CEC columns. For the manufacturing of packed CEC columns, the frit-burning step proved of critical importance, together with the slow build-up of the packed bed. The making of open tubular columns is a relatively simple, "one pot" sol-gel reaction taking place in mild conditions. The nature of the gel and the resulting selectivity of the column could easily be changed by changing the precursors. In a second stage of this thesis the packed and open tubular CEC columns were evaluated chromatographically and compared with the results obtained by MEKC and MEEKC. All electrodriven separation techniques showed high efficiencies. The selectivity proved easier to tune with sol-gel chemistry for the making of open tubular columns. Resolution is acceptable for packed CEC, MEKC and MEEKC. For peak capacity, CEC has the advantage of a practically non-limited elution time, while MEKC and MEEKC suffer of the drawback of the existence of an elution window which is limited in time by the elution of the micelles. Some applications were developed in this study on open tubular CEC columns and for the packed CEC columns. Various sugars derivatized with 9- aminopyrene-1,4,6-trisulfonic acid (APTS) could be separated with open tubular CEC, using an octyl, amino or cyano stationary phase. Open tubular columns containing α, β and γ cyclodextrins attached to the stationary phase were developed. This approach proved promising for the separation of positional isomers. A method was developed for the analyses of a mixture of carbamates and for several steroids with packed column CEC directly coupled with MS.

The generation of nanostructured microscale assemblies with complex, three-dimensional (3-D) morphologies possessing multicomponent inorganic compositions tailored for adhesion is of considerable scientific and technological interest. This dissertation demonstrates that self-assembled 3-D organic templates of biogenic origin can be converted into replicas comprised of numerous other functional nanocrystalline inorganic materials and, further, how such replicas can tailored for adhesion. Nature provides a spectacular variety of biologically-assembled 3-D organic structures with intricate, hierarchical (macro-to-micro-to-nanoscale) morphologies designed for particle adhesion. The conformal coating of such structurally-complex biotemplates with synthetic materials provides a framework for chemical transformation of other, complex synthetic organic templates and the basis to study imparted adhesion properties. Three specific research thrusts are detailed in this document. First, freestanding magnetite (Fe3O4) replicas of bio-organic templates are synthesized via a layer-by-layer (LbL) wet chemical deposition process and subsequent morphology-preserving thermal treatments to allow for structures with tailorable long-range magnetic adhesion. Second, freestanding spinel ferrite replicas of bio-organic templates are synthesized (via LbL coating and thermal treatment) for grain size controlled long-range magnetic adhesion and short range van der Waals adhesion. The final research thrust focuses on the use of a low temperature (≤ 250°C) wet-chemical based process to convert bioorganic templates into magnetically-coated structures retaining both the size and morphology of the template. The rate-limiting kinetic mechanism(s) of the partial reduction of the inorganic coatings have been examined via quartz crystal microbalance analysis. The effects of the coating micro/nanostructure on magnetic behavior and on surface adhesion, have been investigated.

This dissertation addresses two topics associated with the assembly of surfactants at the solid-liquid interface for adsorption and materials synthesis. The first is the adsorption of an anionic fluorinated surfactant, tetraethylammonium perfluorooctylsulfonate (TEA-FOS), at the solid/liquid interface. Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy is used to study the adsorption kinetics and average orientation of surfactants at the hydroxylated germanium surface. Atomic force microscopy provides complementary images of the adsorbed layer structure on mica. The adsorption follows unusual three-stage kinetics in which the rate of adsorption starts fast, slows as the surface becomes crowded, and then (surprisingly) accelerates due to nucleation of a heterogeneous multilayer structure. These fast-slow-fast three stage adsorption kinetics are observed for a wide range of concentrations at pH 6, and the rates of the three stages are modulated by pH and salt by tuning electrostatic interactions among surfactants, counterions, and the surface. The results suggest that tetraethylammonium mediates interactions between surfactants and with negatively charged surfaces. The dichroism measurements and AFM are consistent with a mechanism in which TEA-FOS first forms an incomplete layer with chains oriented randomly or somewhat parallel to the surface, followed by formation of flattened multilayer clusters with the chains oriented somewhat normal to the substrate. The second topic is the sol-gel synthesis of mesoporous silica materials using dual surfactant templates. Studies of templating with mixed cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and octyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside surfactants shows that the ternary phase diagram of surfactants in water can be used to predict mesoporous materials structure, and that vapor-phase ammonia treatments can either stabilize the structure or induce swelling by the Maillard reaction. Studies of sol-gel reaction-induced precipitation with demixed hydrocarbon and fluorocarbon cationic surfactant micelles show a wide variety of pore structures. A number of synthesis parameters are adjusted to tune the pore structure, for instance to adjust the size and populations of bimodal mesopores. Selective swelling of the two surfactants by liphophilic and fluorophilic solvents is observed. Finally, proteinaccessible hollow spherical silica particles with mesoporous shells are reported. The methods for engineering mesoporous materials reported here have potential applications in adsorption, controlled drug delivery and for catalysis.

Modeling the competition between drying and curing processes in polymerizing films is of great importance to many existing and developing materials synthesis processes. These processes involve multiple length and time scales ranging from molecular to macroscopic, and are challenging to fully model in situations where the polymerization is non-ideal, such as sol-gel silica thin film formation. A comprehensive model of sol-gel silica film formation should link macroscopic flow and drying (controlled by process parameters) to film microstructure (which dictates the properties of the films). This dissertation describes a multiscale model in which dynamic Monte Carlo (DMC) polymerization simulations are coupled to a continuum model of drying. Unlike statistical methods, DMC simulations track the entire molecular structure distribution to allow the calculation not only of molecular weight but also of cycle ranks and topological indices related to molecular size and shape. The entire DMC simulation (containing 106 monomers) is treated as a particle of sol whose position and composition are tracked in the continuum mass transport model of drying. The validity of the multiscale model is verified by the good agreement of the conversion evolution of DMC and continuum simulations for ideal polycondensation and first shell substitution effect (FSSE) cases. Because our model allows cyclic and cage-like siloxanes to form, it is better able to predict the silica gelation conversion than other reported kinetic models. By studying the competition between molecular growth and cyclization, and the competition between mass transfer (drying) and reaction (gelation) on the drying process of the sol-gel silica film, we observe that cyclization delays gelation, shrinks the molecular size, increases the likelihood of skin formation, and leads to a molecular structure gradient inside the film. We also find that compared with a model with only 3-membered rings, the molecular structure is more complicated and the structure gradients in the films are larger with 4- membered rings. We expect that our simulation will allow better prediction of the formation of structure gradients in sol-gel derived ceramics and other nonideal multifunctional polycondensation products, and that this will help in developing procedures to reduce coating defects.

<p>   Contamination of surface and ground water from industrial wastes and anthropogenic activities represents one of the greatest challenges to the sustainable development of human society. Heterogeneous photocatalysis, a kind of advanced oxidation process characterized by the production of highly oxidative hydroxyl radicals, is a relatively novel subject with tremendous potential in water treatment applications.</p><p>    The purpose of this research was first to develop feasible hydroxyl radical detection methods, which can be used to evaluate efficiency of photocatalytic process, and second to prepare immobilized TiO2 films with high photocatalytic activities by the sol gel method.</p><p>    The feasibility of Indigo carmine and phthalic hydrazide as OH-radical probes was investigated. The organic dye Indigo carmine absorbs visual light strongly at 610 nm and its destruction can be monitored conveniently in a spectrophotometer. Results showed that both ^·OH and HO₂^·can bleach Indigo carmine, and the bleaching yield of ^·OH was pH independent. The photocatalytic dye bleaching in black light UV illuminated Degussa P25 TiO2 aerated suspensions was then investigated. A strong pH dependency of the bleaching yield was found.  This implies that the quantum yield of OH radical at pH 3 is one fourth compared to that at pH 10. The reaction of the OH radical with phthalic hydrazide will form strongly chemiluminescent 3-hydroxyphthalic hydrazide. Using the more specific phthalic hydrazide as OH radical probe, an even stronger pH dependent quantum yield of OH radical was found. At pH 10 the quantum yield reached the same magnitude as that obtained by using Indigo carmine, whereas the quantum yields at acidic pH were close to zero. However it was found that the addition of phosphate and fluoride anions can substantially enhance the OH radical yield at acidic pH by blocking the adsorption of phthalic hydrazide onto the TiO2 surfaces. Hence the adsorption of phthalic hydrazide to TiO2 is an important factor to consider when this method is used. <em></em></p><p>    Photocatalytic TiO2 films coated on metal plates were prepared by a sol gel method using titanium isopropoxide as TiO2 precursor and isopropanol as solvent. The photocatalytic activity of the obtained films was evaluated by bleaching of indigo carmine at pH 9 under black light UV irradiation. The effect of the molar ratio of isopropanol, water and hydrochloric acid to titanium isopropoxide was studied. It was also shown that the activities of TiO2 films are considerably influenced by calcination temperature, coating cycles and the supporting materials.</p> / <p>    Förorening av yt- och grundvatten från industrier och humana aktiviteter utgör en av de största utmaningarna för en hållbar utveckling av det mänskliga samhället. Heterogen fotokatalys, en slags avancerad oxidations process som kännetecknas av att starkt oxidativa hydroxylradikaler produceras, är en relativt ny teknik med stor potential för vattenrening.</p><p>    Ett syfte med detta licentiatarbete var först att utveckla och genomföra olika metoder för att detektera bildningen av hydroxylradikaler såväl i laboratoriet som i tekniska miljöer. Det andra syftet med arbetet var att syntetisera immobiliserade TiO2 filmer med hög fotokatalytisk effektivitet med en sol-gel metod.</p><p>    Möjligheten att använda indigokarmin och ftalhydrazid som OH-radikalprob undersöktes. Det organiska färgämnet indigokarmin absorberar synligt ljus starkt vid 610 nm vilket gör att dess nedbrytning lätt kan följas i en spektrofotometer. Resultaten av gammaradiolys visade att båda ^•OH och HO₂^• kan bleka indigokarmin och att den blekning som härrör från ^•OH var oberoende av pH. Fotokatalytisk blekning av indigokarmin med blacklight UV bestrålning av  Degussa P25 TiO2 suspensioner undersöktes sedan. Ett starkt pH-beroende av blekningsutbytet erhölls vilket tolkas som att kvantutbytet av OH-radikaler vid pH 3 är en fjärdedel jämfört med det vid pH 10.</p><p>    När ftalhydrazid reagerar med OH-radikaler bildas starkt kemiluminiscent 3-hydroxy-ftalhydrazid. Med denna  specifika OH-radikalprob, erhölls ett ännu starkare pH beroende. Vid pH 10 var kvantutbytet i paritet med det som erhölls med indigokarmin, medan kvantutbytet vid lågt pH var nära noll. Tillsats av fosfat-  och fluoridjoner visade sig avsevärt öka OH-radikalutbytet vid lågt pH-värde genom att blockera adsorption av ftalhydrazid på TiO2 ytorna. Adsorptionen av ftalhydrazid på TiO2 är således en viktig faktor när denna metod används.</p><p>    Fotokatalytiskt verksamma TiO2-filmer på metallplattor framställdes med sol-gel metoden med titan-isopropoxide som TiO2-prekursor och isopropanol som lösningsmedel. Den fotokatalytiska aktiviteten av TiO2-belagda plattor utvärderades genom blekning av indigokarmin vid pH 9 under blacklight UV-bestrålning. Effekten av olika proportioner mellan isopropanol, vatten och saltsyra till titan isopropoxide undersöktes. Det visade sig att denfotokatalytiska aktiviteten av TiO2-plattorna i hög grad påverkades av kalcineringstemperatur, beläggningscykler och materialet i plattorna.</p>

Ce travail est consacré au développement de luminophores ultraphosphatés de formule LnP5O14 (Ln=Gd, La et Y) activés par les ions Eu3+ et/ou Tb3+, synthétisés par la technique sol-gel sous forme de poudres. Les conditions opératoires optimales ont été déterminées, la caractérisation des intermédiaires de réaction et de matériaux finaux a été menée d'un point de vue structural (DRX, IR, Raman, RMN) ou morphologique (MEB, granulométrie laser). L'activation par une sonde fluorescente comme l'ion Eu3+ a aussi permis d'affiner la caractérisation des matériaux en identifiant les signatures spectrales des centres émetteurs corrélativement à leur environnement cristallographique. Une étude structurale a permis de caractériser les variétés monoclinique C2/c et orthorhombique Pnma de l'ultraphosphate d'yttrium YP5O14 à partir des données de la diffraction X sur monocristal. Une étude cristallochimique approfondie des ultraphosphates de formule LnP5O14 a révélé l'existence des variétés monocliniques C2/c pour les ultraphosphates EuP5O14 et GdP5O14 et invalidé l'existence de la variété orthorhombique Pnma pour les ultraphosphates de terres rares de plus grands rayons ioniques. L'étude des propriétés de luminescence sous excitation VUV a montré que les matrices ultraphosphates étudiées dopées en ions Eu3+, répondent favorablement aux conditions requises pour être employées dans les dispositifs plasma. Dans la matrice au gadolinium, un processus de down-conversion est à l'origine du transfert d'énergie entre les ions Gd3+ Et Eu3+ lorsque l'excitation est portée dans la bande d'adsorption caractéristique de la matrice ultraphosphate.

Ce travail concerne, la synthèse, la caractérisation structurale, morphologique et optique de matrices de titanates de baryum (BaTiO3) activées par les ions Eu3+, Er3+ et Yb3+. Trois voies de synthèse sont étudiées : sol-gel, hydrothermale et solide. Il a été montré que la synthèse hydrothermale conduisait à des poudres nanométriques constituées de particules de 20 nm, dix fois plus petites que celles rencontrées dans les poudres obtenues par les techniques classiques de céramisation. L' influence de ce paramètre sur la structure cristallographique des titanates a pu être mise en évidence. L'ajout d'agents chélatants au cours de la synthèse sol-gel permet de modifier la morphologie des poudres et de stabiliser les sols destinés à l'élaboration de revêtements. Des films épais monocouche ( 800 nm) de titanates de baryum dopés Er3+ et Eu3+ ont été ainsi obtenus. Une étude des propriétés optiques des ions de terres rares dans les différents systèmes synthétisés a été menée en enregistrant les différents spectres d'exitation et d'émission. Les phénomènes de transfert d'énergie entre les ions de terres rares ont été étudiés dans les matrices co-dopées

Les verres bioactifs permettent de combler les défauts osseux lors d'applications cliniques. Nous avons élaboré par sol-gel plusieurs verres bioactifs, parmi lesquels des verres dopés en Sr. La bioactivité des verres est avérée : au contact d'un milieu biologique, une couche Ca-P se forme rapidement en surface de nos matériaux. La caractérisation de l'interface verre/ milieu biologique par faisceau d'ions démontre que le verre binaire est le plus rapide en ce qui concerne la dissolution de la matrice et l'apparition de la couche Ca-P. Pour les verres contenant du P, ces phénomènes sont retardés, mais la couche Ca-P-Mg se développe vite en une couche apatitique. Pour les verres dopées en Sr, la couche Ca-P-Mg se forme sur une profondeur réduite. Néanmoins elle évolue plus vite en apatite. De plus la présence de Sr à l'interface verre/ liquide et dans le milieu biologique pourrait résulter, grâce aux effets bénéfiques du Sr sur l'activité cellulaire, en une bioactivité améliorée in vivo

Cette thèse, consacrée à la synthèse de fluorures dopés par des ions de terres rares par chimie douce, a fait l'objet de deux types de synthèses particulières : la synthèse sol-gel et la synthèse par micelles inverses, toutes deux réalisées dans des milieux non-aqueux. La synthèse sol-gel, consistant en la dissolution d'acétates métalliques dans de l'acide trifluoroacétique et de l'isopropanol, a été mise en œuvre afin de réaliser des guides d'ondes amplificateurs à 1.54 μm grâce au dopage à l'erbium. La réalisation des films par dip-coating de sols de PbF2 :Yb-Er (20-10 %) sur des substrats de CaF2 a permis la réalisation de films de qualité suffisante à la réalisation de guides pouvant propager un faisceau laser à 632.8 nm avec des pertes de 5 dB/cm sur ces films mais des progrès restent à faire pour l'amplification à 1.54 μm. Des cristaux se sont formés dans les sols de K3InF6. Selon les conditions d'évaporation du sol, ces cristaux sont différents. Ils ont permis de caractériser des intermédiaires réactionnels permettant, après recuit, de former le fluorure cristallin. Plus le sol évolue, plus les groupements acétates présents initialement en solution autour des cations sont remplacés par des groupements trifluoroacétates. La méthode des micelles inverses dans un milieu non-aqueux a été développée sur le modèle de synthèses existantes. Dans notre cas, le surfactant est du polystyrène, son solvant est le tétrahydrofurane. Le solvant de cœur de la micelle inverse, cœur dans lequel se déroulent les réactions de synthèse des nanoparticules est l'isopropanol. Ces nanoréacteurs, caractérisés par diffusion de neutrons aux petits angles, sont de type coquille avec une taille maximale de 10 nm lorsque le volume d'isopropanol est introduit dans la quantité limite de stabilité de la micelle. Les nanoparticules synthétisées à partir de ces micelles ont des tailles variant de 3 à 35 nm en fonction du taux de dopage en ions de terres rares introduits dans la solution d'isopropanol ainsi que de la nature du contre-ion précurseur (nitrate ou acétate) et de la matrice fluorée (PbF2 ou CaF2). Les propriétés spectroscopiques de l'erbium varient également en fonction de la matrice dans laquelle il est introduit. Les temps de vie des états excités de l'erbium sont plus longs lorsqu'il se trouve dans PbF2 plutôt que dans CaF2. Des nanoparticules de fluorure de plomb co-dopées ytterbium-erbium ont permis d'observer en imagerie en champ proche des objets avec une résolution de 150 nm.