Cette recherche comparative – terrains français et polonais – a été menée à Lyon et à Cracovie. L’objet du travail concerne le tourisme social destiné aux enfants, et ce dans le cadre des classes de découvertes en France et écoles vertes en Pologne, ces voyages scolaires constituant à la fois un temps de vie collective et un temps d’éducation. Le cadre scolaire de la recherche concerne l’école primaire. Le travail s’inscrit dans la vaste problématique de l’acquisition de savoirs géographiques. Le sujet de la recherche mobilise le champ du tourisme dans la mesure où les pratiques qui en relèvent constituent des moyens et modalités d’appropriation de l’espace que les individus mettent en œuvre dans l’élaboration de leurs représentations spatiales. A travers ses expériences, l’individu construit un modèle intériorisé de son environnement. Cette recherche questionne les modalités de l’apprentissage spatial chez les jeunes enfants, questionnement dont l’objectif essentiel est de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’expérience du voyage scolaire est susceptible de modifier leurs représentations spatiales. Pour vérifier si tous les enfants ont des chances égales pour se construire leur propre capital spatial, la recherche examine aussi l’influence sur leurs représentations de la mobilité spatiale antérieure. Afin d’approcher les représentations spatiales des écoliers, sont mobilisés à la fois les données discursives (questionnaires) et graphiques (cartes mentales). L’enquête, menée auprès de 192 élèves de Lyon et de Cracovie, explore donc finalement l’interface entre deux champs scientifiques, ceux de la géographie et ceux de la psychologie, en s’appuyant sur le postulat de représentations spatiales intrinsèques au paradigme qui conçoit l’espace comme un construit. Le travail s’inscrit dans l’approche d’une géographie mettant l’espace vécu au centre de ses préoccupations. / This comparative research - in France and Poland - was conducted in Lyon and Cracow. The purpose of the work is social tourism for children, more specifically the “discovery classes” in France and the “green schools” in Poland, the school trips constituting both a life experience and a time of collective education. The object of the research is primary schools.The work is part of a broader problem of the acquisition of geographical knowledge. The subject of the research mobilizes the field of tourism since the practices that stem from it are ways and means of appropriation of space that individuals implement in the construction of representations of space. Through experience, the individual constructs an interior model of his or her environment. This research project studies the modalities of spatial learning. The objective is to understand if the experience of school trips modifies children’s spatial representations. To ensure that all children have an equal opportunity to build their own spatial capital, research also examines the influence on their representations of previous spatial mobility. In order to examine the children’s spatial representations, both discursive (questionnaires) and graphics data (mental maps) are mobilized. The research, carried out with 192 pupils in Lyon and Cracow, is related to two disciplines, geography and psychology. It is supported by the postulate of spatial representations within the framework of the paradigm of spatial production. The work is part of an approach to geography, in which the “espace vécu” is the central preoccupation.

Research and Development engineering is at the corner stone of humanity’s evolution. It is perceived to be a systematic creative process which ultimately improves the living standard of a society through the creation of new applications and products. The commercial paradigm that governs project selection, resource allocation and market penetration prevails when the focus shifts from pure research to applied research. Furthermore, the road to success through commercialisation is difficult for most inventors, especially in a vast and isolated country such as Australia which is located a long way from wealthy and developed economies. While market leading products are considered unique, the actual process to achieve these products is essentially the same; progressing from an idea, through development to an outcome (if successful). Unfortunately, statistics indicate that only 3% of ‘ideas’ are significantly successful, 4% are moderately successful, and the remainder ‘evaporate’ in that form (Michael Quinn, Chairman, Innovation Capital Associates Pty Ltd). This study demonstrates and analyses two techniques developed by the author which reduce uncertainty in the engineering design and development phase of new product development and therefore increase the probability of a successful outcome. This study expands the existing knowledge of the engineering design and development stage in the new product development process and is couched in the identification of practical methods, which have been successfully used to develop new products by Australian Small Medium Enterprise (SME) Excel Technology Group Pty Ltd (ETG). Process theory is the term most commonly used to describe scientific study that identifies occurrences that result from a specified input state to an output state, thus detailing the process used to achieve an outcome. The thesis identifies relevant material and analyses recognised and established engineering processes utilised in developing new products. The literature identified that case studies are a particularly useful method for supporting problem-solving processes in settings where there are no clear answers or where problems are unstructured, as in New Product Development (NPD). This study describes, defines, and demonstrates the process of new product development within the context of historical product development and a ‘live’ case study associated with an Australian Government START grant awarded to Excel Technology Group in 2004 to assist in the development of an image-based vehicle detection product. This study proposes two techniques which reduce uncertainty and thereby improve the probability of a successful outcome. The first technique provides a predicted project development path or forward engineering plan which transforms the initial ‘fuzzy idea’ into a potential and achievable outcome. This process qualifies the ‘fuzzy idea’ as a potential, rationale or tangible outcome which is within the capability of the organisation. Additionally, this process proposes that a tangible or rationale idea can be deconstructed in reverse engineering process in order to create a forward engineering development plan. A detailed structured forward engineering plan reduces the uncertainty associated with new product development unknowns and therefore contributes to a successful outcome. This is described as the RETRO technique. The study recognises however that this claim requires qualification and proposes a second technique. The second technique proposes that a two dimensional spatial representation which has productivity and consumed resources as its axes, provides an effective means to qualify progress and expediently identify variation from the predicted plan. This spatial representation technique allows a quick response which in itself has a prediction attribute associated with directing the project back onto its predicted path. This process involves a coterminous comparison between the predicted development path and the evolving actual project development path. A consequence of this process is verification of progress or the application of informed, timely and quantified corrective action. This process also identifies the degree of success achieved in the engineering design and development phase of new product development where success is defined as achieving a predicted outcome. This spatial representation technique is referred to as NPD Mapping. The study demonstrates that these are useful techniques which aid SMEs in achieving successful new product outcomes because the technique are easily administered, measure and represent relevant development process related elements and functions, and enable expedient quantified responsive action when the evolving path varies from the predicted path. These techniques go beyond time line representations as represented in GANTT charts and PERT analysis, and represent the base variables of consumed resource and productivity/technical achievement in a manner that facilitates higher level interpretation of time, effort, degree of difficulty, and product complexity in order to facilitate informed decision making. This study presents, describes, analyses and demonstrates an SME focused engineering development technique, developed by the author, that produces a successful new product outcome which begins with a ‘fuzzy idea’ in the mind of the inventor and concludes with a successful new product outcome that is delivered on time and within budget. Further research on a wider range of SME organisations undertaking new product development is recommended.