To identify and quantify the influence of physico-chemical, biotic and geographic factors on the population of dragonflies (Odonata) is an essential tool for research of their ecology. The aim of this study was to 1) assess how these factors influence species richness, diversity and spatial distribution of dragonflies in 42 newly constructed or renewed pools located in the Kokořínsko Protected Landscape Area, which is characterized by two valleys of Liběchovka and Pšovka creeks, low human impact, and a great diversity of small water bodies and 2) use laboratory experiments in order to estimate the relationship between large predatory invertebrates of these pools (Aeshna cyanea, Coenagrion puella, Chaoborus crystallinus and Notonecta glauca) and their common prey (Daphnia curvirostris) in an artificial environment with or without aquatic macrophytes. The pools were monitored and sampled between years 2005 and 2006. In total, 23 dragonflies species were found inhabiting these lentic habitats, comprising 11 species belonging to the suborder Zygoptera and 12 species belonging to the suborder Anisoptera, including a rare species Sympetrum depressiusculum (larvae). Most variability in the dragonfly species richness was explained by the size of the water surface area, followed by the location of the pools (inside...

The Thesis is treating the spreading of non-native waterfowl species into new ecosystems and factors, which influence that process. The impact of selected eco-geographic characteristics on the species diversity and on the numbers of non-native waterfowl individuals was analyzed on the results of the International Waterbird Census. Further, the influence of those characteristics on the numbers and population trends of selected 11 species of the Anatidae family in 17 European countries was assessed. The highest non-native waterfowl species diversity was recorded in countries of the Atlantic coast, i.e. France, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and also Switzerland. The main positive influence on their numbers makes the density of population and species diversity of wintering waterfowl. As to the number of non-native species individuals the main impact is produced by both, species diversity and the given latitude, too. It means that the largest number of individual exist in northern countries - Great Britain, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands. Similar main influences have been traced with the family Anatidae, too, which have received special attention in the analysis, as it shows the highest number of non- native species. As to the main eco-geographic characteristics, having impact on the growth or...

A bacia do Rio Corumbataí é composta por um mosaico de ambientes, fortemente antropizado, com predominância de pastagens e plantações de cana-deaçúcar, além de florestas plantadas de eucalipto e fragmentos de floresta estacional semidecidual. Esta bacia, principal fonte de abastecimento de água da região metropolitana de Campinas, pode ser considerada como um modelo conveniente para o estudo da conservação da diversidade biológica. Subdivide-se em cinco sub-bacias, sendo que a maior, e que apresenta os maiores fragmentos florestais remanescentes, é a do Rio Passa-Cinco. Para verificar a diversidade e a abundância de espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte, bem como a utilização que fazem deste mosaico agroflorestal, foram realizados censos por meio de transectos, buscando-se todos os possíveis tipos de registro - diretos e indiretos - como observação direta, fezes, pegadas, arranhões e carcaças. Entre julho de 2003 e junho de 2004 foram percorridos 284,4 km ao todo, e registradas 25 espécies silvestres nativas e duas exóticas, além de seis espécies domésticas. Na floresta nativa foram registradas 23 espécies, no canavial 20, no eucaliptal 17 e nas áreas de pastagem 12. O estimador não-paramétrico Bootstrap calculou 25 espécies para a floresta nativa, 22 para o canavial, 18 para o eucalipto e 13 para o pasto, indicando que o esforço amostral não foi suficiente para a estabilização da curva de esforço. Os índices de Diversidade (H’ e 1/D), bem como Pielou (J’), mostraram ambientes similares, e o ajuste das curvas de distribuição de espécies ao modelo de séries logarítmicas mostra uma comunidade com uma estrutura composta por poucas espécies abundantes e muitas espécies raras. Quanto à freqüência de ocorrência e à abundância relativa nos quatro ambientes amostrados, as únicas espécies que apresentaram diferenças entre os ambientes foram o cachorro-do-mato (Cerdocyon thous) e a lebre européia (Lepus europaeus), ambas com hábitos generalistas, as duas com maior freqüência no canavial, e a lebre-européia também com maior abundância no canavial. Já em relação à comunidade de mamíferos como um todo, o pasto apareceu como o ambiente com menor riqueza de espécies e com o menor freqüência de ocorrência, enquanto que o canavial obteve a maior freqüência de ocorrência. A análise de correspondência mostrou sete espécies mais relacionadas à floresta nativa, cinco ao eucalipto e nove às áreas abertas (pastagem e canavial). Os resultados obtidos sugerem que a comunidade de mamíferos de médio e grande porte da Bacia do Rio Passa-Cinco é sujeita às modificações ambientais que a região vem sofrendo, e que as espécies de hábitos mais generalistas são as que estão conseguindo se manter com maior facilidade, devido, possivelmente, a seus menores requerimentos de habitat. / The Corumbataí river basin is a landscape with great human influence, with the most relevant agroecosystems of São Paulo. It has been used as one of the major water supplies for the metropolitan region of Campinas. This basin is formed by five subbasins, where the Passa-Cinco river basin is the largest, with the most native remaining fragments. This basin could be considered as a convenient model for the study of biodiversity conservation in agroecosystems. In order to evaluate the distribution and abundance of medium and large-sized mammals, 284,4 km of transects were censused from July 2003 to June 2004 in Semideciduous native forest, eucalyptus plantations, sugar-cane plantations and pastures. All possible records were recorded such as direct observation, faeces, tracks, scratches, and carcasses. I found 25 native species and two exotic species, besides six domestic species. On the native forest I recorded 23 species, on sugar cane 20, on eucalypt forest 17, and on the pasture areas 12. The diversity and the evenness index suggested that environments were similar, and the distribution species curve (Log-series model) showed few abundant and a majority of rare species. Crab-eating fox and European hare were the only species with differences among habitats in frequency of occurrence, and European hare was the only one with difference among habitats in relative abundance. The results suggested that this mammalian community has been influenced by the environmental alteration that this region has been suffering, and the current community is basically formed by generalist species what enhanced its adaptation to an anthropogenic landscape. In such conditions, current environmental laws should be enforced in order to improve forest conservation and mitigate the impacts of agriculture, paper industry, and livestock production.

Community genetics research investigates the influence of intra-specific genetic variation on species interactions. This rapidly growing research field consists of more than one approach to explore how a significant portion of the environment of a focal species is differentially defined by the expressed genomes of other interacting species. While the basic concept of community genetics is well supported empirically, there is still a set of pertinent issues in need of further investigation. The initial research addressed herein focused on the extent to which the magnitude of a community genetic effect can be moderated when acting in concert with other forces in nature, i.e. the interaction between community genetic effects and the effects of other eco-evolutionary processes such as competition and parasitism. Subsequent research investigated the impact of genetic variation of host plants in agro-ecosystems on the performance (reproductive success) and behaviour (distribution and feeding-site choice) of plant-associated pests such as aphids, especially when pests and their hosts were subject to plant-mediated interactions. In addition, the differential effects of Indirect Ecological Effects (IEEs) and Indirect Genetic effects (IGEs) on the emergence of shared (extended) phenotypes between natural enemies (i.e. biological control agents and phytophagous insects) were examined. I provide clear evidence for significant effects of the genetic variation of host plant on aphid performance, behaviour and intra- and inter-specific competition. My findings also give credence to the concept of reciprocal moderation between plant genotype and aphid competition. I also provide observations on competition that segues into less antagonistic and possibly into a more cooperative form of interaction. In addition, I establish novel systems of economically important crop genotypes, noxious sap-feeding aphid species and root-galling nematodes. I also devise an amalgamated approach to interpret the interwoven set of mechanisms that underpin the observations presented and conclusions drawn. I also provide further investigation on the role of Indirect Ecological Effects (IEEs) between root-knot nematodes and sap-feeding aphids, and demonstrate the influence of in-plant variation on the interaction between the spatially separated plant consumers. Furthermore, I use a quantitative genetic experimental design in order to demonstrate a differential impact of parasitoid genotype on the behaviour of its aphid host. As such, I provide some of the clearest evidence to date that the phenotype of an organism can be the product of the genes expressed in another organism via Inter-specific Indirect Genetic Effects (IIGEs). Finally, I conducted research on epiphytic bromeliads and their associated faunal communities in the tropics. Here I demonstrate that the influence of intra-specific genetic variation of the host plant on the associated ecological communities may be more universal than previously conceived, with a plausible role for such variation in the maintenance of biological diversity. My research provides evidence for the genetic basis of species interactions and, interestingly, a genetic basis for the evolutionary arms-race between foragers and their hosts. My doctoral work adds new evidence to the increasing literature on the evolutionary importance of (Genotype x Genotype) interactions and (Genotype x Genotype x Environment) interactions in shaping the dynamics of pest communities, which in turn can affect plant phenotype and can influence the properties and services of the focal ecosystem in which the inter-players live and interact.

O aumento da concentração de CO2 na atmosfera nas últimas décadas e sua relação com o aquecimento global tem sido amplamente debatido nos meios acadêmicos. Paralelamente, o Brasil aparece como um dos grandes responsáveis pela emissão de gases estufa em decorrência do desmatamento. Buscando apoiar ações públicas, privadas e sociais e responder a questões ligadas ao papel de reflorestamentos mistos na absorção de carbono atmosférico e nas mudanças dos atributos do solo, este trabalho objetivou avaliar o estoque de carbono, o desenvolvimento florestal e os atributos edáficos em dois sistemas contrastantes de restauração florestal (Floresta Estacional Semidecidual). Foi analisado um experimento implantado em 1997, em Nitossolo Vermelho e Argissolo Vermelho-Amarelo, avaliando três tratamentos em blocos casualizados, com três repetições em cada sítio: Controle (regeneração natural), Baixa Diversidade (semeadura direta) e Alta Diversidade (plantio por mudas). Dois locais com Floresta Nativa serviram de referência para os atributos do solo. Na camada de 0-40 cm, o Nitossolo tem textura argilosa e boa fertilidade e o Argissolo é arenoso com média fertilidade. Os atributos físicos e químicos do solo apresentaram alterações entre 1998 e 2010, com diferenças entre a Floresta Nativa e os demais tratamentos. Para as duas áreas experimentais, a relação C:N e o carbono da biomassa microbiana dos solos nos modelos de restauração se assemelharam ao Floresta Nativa, indicando que as atuais condições favorecem a ciclagem de nutrientes. Apesar disto, para os atributos químicos do solo avaliados, as diferenças entre a Floresta Nativa e os demais tratamentos continuam a existir, mesmo após 10 anos da implantação, devendo ser gradativo o retorno da fertilidade à condição pré-existente, com influência dos plantios. Os modelos de reflorestamento tiveram diferença significativa quanto ao desenvolvimento florestal. Nos primeiros dez anos, além de incrementar os processos de sucessão natural, o sistema de Baixa Diversidade proporcionou uma maior e melhor edificação da estrutura horizontal e vertical que o de Alta Diversidade, refletida numa maior produção de biomassa seca. O desenvolvimento das árvores no Alta Diversidade foi favorecido em solo de boa fertilidade. Numa análise conjunta, os solos de boa e média fertilidade não se diferenciaram em termos de desenvolvimento arbóreo, que pode estar mais relacionado à alta competição com invasoras. A partir do décimo ano a produtividade primária líquida se estabilizou para o modelo de reflorestamento com baixa diversidade de espécies sobre o solo arenoso de média fertilidade, indicando a necessidade de intervenção. A biomassa arbórea em sítio de média fertilidade com baixa diversidade de espécies nativas se apresentou como um importante reservatório de carbono. Em solo argiloso de boa fertilidade o principal reservatório de carbono foi o abaixo do solo. O reflorestamento com baixa diversidade de espécies arbóreas mostrou um elevado potencial e capacidade de estoque de carbono em sistemas florestais, maior do que o reflorestamento com alta diversidade. Ambos os modelos/técnicas de restauração têm suas vantagens e desvantagens, as quais devem ser consideradas nos processos de mitigação do aquecimento global e da restauração da biodiversidade da Mata Atlântica em larga escala. / The increase of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere over the last decades and its relation to global warming has been largely documented by scientists. In parallel, deforestation in Brazil accounts for most emissions of greenhouse gases. Attempting to support public, private and social actions as well as to answer the questions concerning the role of mixed reforestation in the absorption of CO2 and changes of soil attributes, this study aimed to assess the carbon stock, forest development and soil changes in two different systems of forest restoration. We evaluated an experiment undertaken in 1997, in a red Alfisol and a red-yellow Ultisol, evaluating three treatments in a randomized block design with three replications in each site: Control (natural regeneration), Low Diversity (direct seeding) and High Diversity (seedlings). Two sites with Native Forest were used as reference for the soil attributes. In the first layer (0-40 cm) the Alfisol has a clay texture with good fertility and Ultisol is sandy with medium fertility. The physical and chemical soil properties showed changes from 1998 to 2010 and differences between the Native Forest and the other treatments were evident. For both experimental areas, the C:N ratio of soils in reforestation models is similar to that in the native forest. The increase in carbon in soil microbial biomass indicates that current conditions may favor the decomposition of soil organic matter. For the soil properties evaluated, the differences between the Native Forest and the other treatments still exist and leading to a gradual return of fertility to the pre-existing condition, influenced by plantations. The forestry development had significant differences among the reforestation models. In the first ten years, besides increasing the processes of natural succession, the lower diversity model provided a better horizontal and vertical structure than the high diversity model, reflected in increased biomass production. The development of trees in the high diversity model was favored in soil of good fertility. In a pooled analysis, the high and medium fertility soil do not differ in terms of tree development, which may be more related to weed competition. After the tenth year, the net primary production has stabilized in the low diversity restoration model on the medium fertility sandy soil, requiring management intervention. The tree biomass in the site of medium fertility with low diversity of native species is presented as a major carbon pool. In clayey soil of good fertility the main carbon pool is underground. Reforestation with low diversity of tree species has a high potential and capacity of carbon stocking in forest ecosystems, higher than that of high diversity reforestation model. Both models and restoration techniques have advantages and disadvantages, which should be considered in the process to mitigate global warming and to restore biodiversity of the Atlantic Forest on a larger scale.

The present study provides the first description of the calls of a multi-species ensiferan assemblage in a tropical evergreen forest of the Indian subcontinent. I have identified and described the calls of twenty ensiferan species constituting the nocturnal acoustic community of a tropical evergreen forest in KNP. I found that the multi-species ensiferan assemblage consisted of diverse taxa representing subfamilies of the families Gryllidae, Tettigoniidae and Anostostomatidae. Eight acoustically communicating species of the family Gryllidae were found. Two species belonged to the family Mogoplistidae. Interestingly, each subfamily was mostly represented by only one genus. In the tettigoniids, representative species were found only from subfamilies Pseudophyllinae, Phaneropterinae and Mecopodinae. The species richness of the acoustically communicating cricket assemblage in the tropical evergreen forest of Kudremukh was found to be low. This study did not include non-calling and ultrasonic species of crickets. The gryllid and tettigoniid species analyzed exhibited different frequency (both narrow and broadband) and temporal patterns. Species belonging to the family Gryllidae had narrow band calls (with bandwidths not greater than 1 kHz) and had dominant frequencies mainly between 3 and 7 kHz. The calls of tettigoniids covered a wide spectral range reaching far into the ultrasound in species of the genus Mecopoda. Interestingly, of nine tettigoniid species, the calls of four (Onomarchus sp., Phyllomimus sp., Brochopeplus sp. and ‘15 kHz’) were narrow band and in the audible range, similar to those of gryllids. Although there was a high overlap of call frequencies between 3 to 7 kHz, gryllid species separated in their syllable repetition rate, which varied from six syllables per second in Landreva to 60 syllables/second in Gryllitara. Species with overlapping syllable repetition rates of 10 – 20 syllables per second separated along the frequency axis. There were species such as those of Phaloria and Gryllitara, Scapsipedus, Xabea and Callogryllus that overlapped both in the spectral and syllable repetition rates. These species however, differed in the other temporal features such as call duration, call period and number of syllables per call. This study also provides the first description of the calls and stridulatory structures of an Indian weta species (Family Anostostomatidae). Both males and females of this species were found to stridulate. The calls of the two sexes had similar spectral features. Male calls consisted of four syllables each, while female calls were bisyllabic. Stridulatory structures were similar between the sexes. I also quantitatively validated the reliability of human listener - based psychoacoustic sampling as a technique to monitor species richness and relative abundance of acoustically communicating ensiferan species that are within the human hearing range. I have shown using controlled psychoacoustic tests in the laboratory that a trained listener is capable of identifying the species as well as the number of individuals of Ensifera with high accuracy. This study suggests that trained listener - based psychoacoustic sampling may be preferable to carry out rapid assessments and species inventories of gryllids and low frequency katydid species in tropical forests. My study also suggests that acoustic monitoring of Orthoptera should be done using both the trained listener - based spot sampling and ambient noise recordings using ultrasound detectors for accurately estimating species richness and relative abundance in an area. Using focal animal sampling, I have shown that most species in the tropical forest ensiferan assemblage of Kudremukh National Park did not move more than a metre in a span of half an hour. The acoustic sampling should be designed in such a way as to cause minimal disturbance to the calling animals and could be limited to ten minutes to avoid re-counting individuals and counter the problem of pseudoreplication. I also investigated the spatial dispersion of calling sites in the vertical dimension. This study revealed vertical stratification of the calling heights of the twenty ensiferan species. Calling heights of both gryllid and tettigoniid species ranged from the ground to the canopy, although more gryllid than tettigoniid species occupied the ground and herb layer. Post hoc comparisons and cluster analysis indicated the presence of discrete calling height layers corresponding to the canopy, understorey, herb and ground layer. These clusters emerged from the raw data of calling heights of individuals of each species without a priori distinction of layers. This is in contrast to other studies on vertical stratification in arthropods and bats where baits, traps and mist nets are placed at different vertical layers, thereby demarcating the layers beforehand. Previous studies on crickets, cicadas and frogs have shown preference for the height of calling sites qualitatively. To my knowledge, this is the first study to quantitatively establish vertical stratification in calling heights in an ensiferan assemblage of an evergreen forest. No correlation between the calling heights and mean dominant frequencies of the species were found. Cricket species with relatively low frequency calls (3–4 kHz) occupied both the ground layer (Callogryllus sp. and Scapsipedus sp.) and the canopy (Xabea sp. and Onomarchus sp) suggesting that these narrow-band, relatively low frequency signals may be optimal for sound transmission in the cluttered habitat of the forest floor (due to leaf litter) and the canopy (due to high leaf density). Species with high frequencies such as Brochopeplus sp. and ‘15 kHz’ called mainly from vegetation in the understorey. Species with broadband calls (Mecopoda sp., Pirmeda sp. and Elimaea sp.) called just above the ground layer and from the understorey suggesting that calls with higher frequencies and bandwidths may be used in the somewhat less-cluttered microhabitat of the understorey. Calling height stratification in the ensiferan assemblages of tropical forests could also be due to other ecological factors such as predation by spiders, mantises, bats, birds or primates. The wide range of duty cycles, presence of high duty cycle callers (such as Mecopoda) and the lack of correlation of duty cycle with calling height found in our study site are interesting. Studies on acoustic transmission in different microhabitats at different heights and on predation pressure on the ensiferan species will provide further insight into the selective forces influencing calling height stratification. The multi-species assemblage constituting the nocturnal acoustic community was found to be calling in the same time period between evening to midnight and no species was found to have a unique calling time that is different from that of another species. There was no diel partitioning of calling time between the acoustically communicating ensiferan species. Frogs and cicadas that can be considered as acoustic competitors of the ensiferan assemblage appeared to be separating from crickets on a seasonal and diel scale respectively. This study has quantified the amount of masking interference in three dimensions viz. temporal, fine temporal and spectral, between sixteen species belonging to the nocturnal acoustic ensiferan assemblage of an evergreen forest. Frequency histograms of overlap, bar graphs of overlap on a species by other species and Mantel’s test results on matrix correlation suggest negative relations between the temporal, fine-temporal and spectral overlaps. Species with high overlap in one dimension had very low levels of overlap in any of the other two dimensions, suggesting acoustic resource partitioning in the ensiferan assemblage of the evergreen forest. I also tried to quantify the extent of spatial overlap between species based on calling intensity and inter-specific distances. However, spatial overlap could not be analysed further as there were some species pairs for which I did not have the inter-individual distances despite carrying out the field work for six months. The procedure of estimating spatial overlap between species pairs and the result along with missing gaps is presented in appendix 2. It will be interesting to investigate the extent of spatial overlap between species pairs as the fourth dimension in which species could separate to avoid acoustic competition. It is also important to estimate the relative abundance of species in the evergreen forest to obtain a realistic representation of masking interference between species. Partitioning of acoustic resources among ensiferan assemblage could also be better explained by analysing all the dimensions.

Recent research has emphasized the importance of understanding the consequences of species loss, not just for biodiversity per se, but also for ecosystem resilience and functioning. Firstly, a baseline analysis of the effects of a naturally patchy landscape on avian community composition and resilience in a high altitude Afrotemperate forest landscape in South Africa is presented. Bird data from a point count survey of 706 counts at 31 forest sites was used to test whether taxonomic species diversity, functional species richness and density of birds provide insight into community resilience in this historically patchy ecosystem. Bird species richness of forest patches ranged from 17 to 38, with a total species richness of 50. Density was slightly but negatively related to both area and species richness. That density compensation is occurring in these Afrotemperate forests suggests a level of resilience in this system. Following on from this, cumulative species-area and function-area graphs were derived to quantify the loss of forest area or taxonomic bird species richness that this landscape may potentially sustain before ecosystem functioning is negatively affected. The concept that species’ patterns of distribution, abundance and coexistence are the result of local ecological processes has recently been challenged by evidence that regionalscale processes are equally instrumental in shaping local community composition. The historically and naturally fragmented Afrotemperate forests of the uKhahlamba– Drakensberg Park, South Africa, offer an interesting test case. In this study the relative effects of local and regional-scale processes on species assemblages in a naturally patchy forest system were investigated. By employing species-area and species-isolation relationships, and nested subset analyses, we showed that isolation (regional-scale process) had a greater effect on bird species richness and composition than area (local-scale process), though the species-area relationship was significant. Using generalized linear models and an information-theoretic approach to model selection, patch area, the size of the regional species pool as well as the distance to the nearest Eastern Mistbelt forest were all influential in determining local bird species richness in these montane forests. Thus, localities are regionally enriched within the constraints on species occupancy provided by the available habitat. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Magistro darbe vertinama medynų įvairovė biologinės įvairovės požiūriu ir nustatomos teritorijos palankiausios biologinei įvairovei ir jos apsaugai. Darbo objektas – VĮ Švenčionėlių miškų urėdijos Januliškio girininkijos teritorija. Darbo tikslas – įvertinti Januliškio girininkijos medynus biologinės įvairovės požiūriu ir nustatyti palankiausiais biologinei įvairovei ir jos apsaugai teritorijas. Darbo metodai – 1975 m., 1985 m., 1999 m., ir 2009 m. miškotvarkų duomenų analizavimas ir nustatytų medynų rūšinės įvairovės rodiklių vertinimas, bei remiantis girininkijoje esančiomis saugomomis teritorijomis, kertinėmis miško buveinėmis ir retomis rūšimis, charakterizuojama girininkijos biologinė įvairovė ir nustatomos jos koncentracijos vietos. Darbo rezultatai. Atlikus tyrimus nustatyta, kad Januliškio girininkijoje tenkančio miško masyvo dalyje 1975 m. augo 6, 1985 m. – 7, o 1999 – 2009 m. po 9 medžių rūšių. Tai lėmė liepos, baltalksnio, ąžuolo, uosio, gluosnio ir maumedžio atsiradimas medynuose. Nagrinėjimu laikotarpiu yra pastebimas pušynų mažėjimas, jie sumažėjo 6,4%, tačiau tuo pačiu laikotarpiu yar fiksuojamas eglynų kiekio didėjimas medynų sudėtyje. Jų kiekis medyne padidėjo 4%. Nagrinėtų įvairovės, proporcingumo bei vyravimo rodiklių dinamika rodo medynų rūšinės įvairovės didėjimą iki 1985 m. ir mažėjimą po 1985 m. Nagrinėjant atskirų augaviečių medynų rūšinės įvairovės dinamiką 1975 – 2009 m., pastebėta, kad didžiausia rūšinė įvairovė buvo Nb, Nc, Lc ir Uc augavietėse... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / In this final master degree work the stands of Januliškis Forestry are evaluated from the perpective of biodiversity and the most favorable environment for biodiversity and it‘s protection is determined. The object of the work – The teritory of SE Švenčionėliai State Forest Januliškis Forestry. The aim of the study – To evaluate Januliškis Forestry stands from the perspective of biodiversity and to determine the most favorable teritories for biodiversity and it‘s protection. Working methods – the analysis of 1975 yr., 1985 yr., 1999 yr., and 2009 yr. data about forest order, the assessment of stands‘ species diversity rates and the characterization of the forestry biological diversity and determination of concentration points based on protected teritories, key biotopes and rare species that are found in the teritory of particular forestry. Study results – The reasearch showed that in the part of the forest which belongs to Juniliškis Forestry in 1975 there were 6 tree species, in 1985 – 7, and in 1999 – 2009 there could be found 9 tree species. This happened due to linden, gray alder, oak, ash, willow and larch stands appearance. In the analyzed period the decrease in number of pines by 6,4% can be observed, on the other hand, at the same time the increase in number of spruces by 4 % is traced. The dynamics of analyzed diversity, proportion and predominance rates indicates the growth of stands‘ species diversity till 1985 and it‘s abatement after 1985. While analysing the... [to full text]

Global declines in amphibian species have directed research towards investigating why this is happening. One of the major causes of these declines is the fragmentation and loss of habitat. This study examined the effect of land use on the species composition of frogs within North Eastern KwaZulu-Natal, and the use of buffer zones to facilitate the protection of these species. Three land use types were investigated: sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), gum (Eucalyptus sp.) plantations and conservation areas. The average number of frog species differed between areas: conservation 13.2 ± 6.6; plantations 3.8 ± 1.3; and sugar cane 2.8 ± 1.4. Sugar and gum plantation were found to be lacking the wetland and grassland/woodland habitats. In addition to this, the frog species that were not present on these land use types were those that are totally dependent on water as well as those that are not dependent on a water source. Two species were highlighted as possible indicator species of land use: Amietophrynus gutturalis and Hyperolius marmoratus. To mitigate the effect of these land use types, the use of buffer zones was explored in a desktop study. A range of buffer zones were applied to wetlands in a sample study area, using a range of distances including the distances of 290 m and 159 m recommended by Semlitsch and Bodie (2003), and the recommended distances for wetlands in South Africa of 10-20 m. The application of a 290 m and 159 m buffer zone on a conglomerate of wetlands connected by a 100m buffer was the most feasible as it incorporated a percentage of the total study (6.4% and 4.3%) area similar to the percentage occupied by the recommended 20m buffer zone (5.5%) around all wetlands, and still incorporated the range under protection put forward by Semlitsch and Bodie (2003). Management implications of these findings are discussed. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The overall aim of the study was to investigate re-vegetation of disturbed sites, using nursery grown plugs (from seedling trays) of Themeda triandra, Heteropogon contortus and Hyparrhenia dregeana in order to reach practical management guidelines for re-vegetation using indigenous grass plugs. A number of field trials were set up at Kamberg Nature Reserve (29°24'S, 29°40'E) on a site that was clear felled of A. mearnsii in October 1997. The trials were established in January 1998 and January 1999. A total of approximately 52 ,000 nursery raised plugs of T. triandra, H. contortus and H. dregeana were planted into an area of approximately 7,000 m2 . In the planting density trial , plugs of H. dregeana only and a combination of T. triandra/H. contortus were planted at 15 cm and 30 cm spacings. The T. triandra/H. contortus combination at 30 spacing showed the greatest survival and lateral plant growth (tiller number and basal area) and this combination is thus recommended. In the over-sowing trials, the H. dregeana and T. triandra/H. contortus combination at both 15 cm and 30 cm spacing were over-sown with E. curvula. The survival and lateral growth of the T. triandra/ H. contortus combination at 30 cm was again greater than the other treatments. Over-sowing with E. curvula suppressed the survival and lateral growth of the planted plugs across all treatments compared to not over-sowing. The over-sown conditions showed a significant decrease in the diversity of the plots, both in the number of species present and the Shannon diversity index. An area that had been cleared of A. mearnsii and sown to E. curvula 25 years previously was shown to have a lower number of species than the neighbouring veld. Nursery raised plugs of T. triandra were planted into the mature E. curvula in an attempt to improve the biodiversity of these areas. To re-introduce T. triandra into these E. curvula swards the plugs must be planted into the centre of a gap rather than around the base of an E. curvula plant. For improved survival of the plugs the E. curvula tufts must be clipped, while for best lateral growth the E. curvula tufts must be sprayed with a glyphosate herbicide three months prior to planting and clipping. However, the added expense of spraying and clipping is not warranted as the clipped treatments also showed good growth. Transplant shock is common when planting nursery raised plugs out into the field, as there is a relatively small root volume in the plug compared to the above ground leaf biomass. Alleviation of moisture stress at planting using a starch based polymer with high water holding capacity (Terrasorb®) and a white, needle punched geo-fabric (Agrilen®) to provide a seven day period of artificial shade after planting did not show significant improvements over the control with regards to survival or plant growth. Thus these methods of moisture amelioration are not recommended in revegetation through planting of plugs at this study site. A trial was established to investigate the biomass production of six different treatments to determine their potential to support a fire. The total biomass for the plots which were over-sown by E. tef and planted to only H. dregeana were on average sufficient for a fire, but there was a discontinuous fuel load across these plots, especially in the replications that had very low survival rates and thus these plots could not be burnt. The control and herbicide sprayed plots also showed sufficient fuel load for a fire, but this fuel load was made up of A. mearnsii saplings and bramble with very little grass cover and thus a fire would not have burnt through these plots either. The T. triandra/H. contortus combination did not produce sufficient fuel load, due to poor survival. Thus only the plots over-sown with E. curvula were able to burn in this trial and as a burning trial per se the trial was abandoned. Seed bearing hay (thatch) was collected in early summer (December 1997) and late summer (April 1998). Both times of year of harvesting proved to be successful in terms of grass cover, although the early harvested thatch had a greater number of species per plot. The Shannon diversity indexes of the two treatments were not significantly different. The multi-response permutation procedure technique confirmed that there was a compositional difference between the treatments. By the end of the trial Harpochloa falx and T. triandra and H. dregeana were indicators for the early and the late harvested thatch respectively. Comparing the thatching trial and the planting density trial indicated that the T. triandra/H. contortus combination at 30 cm spacing would be recommended to maximize biodiversity. The summer months have been shown to be the best time to plant the plugs, although the actual success will be dependant on the conditions within a particular year. The plugs should not be kept in the nursery for longer than three months and larger plugs (96 seedlings per tray) should be used. Nursery raised plugs of T. triandra and H. contortus were planted in an equal mix in an area that was cleared of A. mearnsii in 1996. By June 1998 661 H. contortus seedlings and 14 T. triandra seedlings had germinated naturally. The November 1998 population consisted of 418 H. contortus seedlings and 18 T. triandra seedlings. By May 2000 the June 1998 population showed a survival of 78.4% and the November 1998 population showed a survival of 91 .1 %. In the various trials, the ability of the nursery raised plugs used for re-vegetation to suppress the regrowth of A. mearnsii was investigated by determining the number of A. mearnsii seedlings per metre squared. The plant spacing and species of plugs used did not have a significant effect on the number of A. mearnsii seedlings per metre squared. Over-sowing with E. curvula did, however, significantly suppress the wattle re-growth. In the thatching trial the early harvested plots showed lower numbers of A. mearnsii per metre squared than the late harvest plots, as they were covered with a thick layer of thatch soon after the A. mearnsii was cleared which suppressed the A. mearnsii re-growth. Although E. curvula is able to produce a high biomass and suppress the A. meansii seedlings, it has a detrimental effect on the biodiversity of the area. Therefore, in conservation areas, where biodiversity is of great importance the planted plugs (at 30 cm spacing) or seed bearing hay must be used in preference to sowing E. curvula , although it must be remembered that greater follow up control is likely to be needed with planted plugs or seed bearing hay. The area must be planted or thatched as soon as possible after clear felling to provide competition for the A. mearnsii seedlings. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.