No description available.

The genus Eimeria (Apicomplexa, Coccidia) provides a wide range of different species with different hosts to study common and variable features within the genus and its species. A common characteristic of all known Eimeria species is the oocyst, the infectious stage where its life cycle starts and ends. In our study, we utilized Eimeria nieschulzi as a model organism. This rat-specific parasite has complex oocyst morphology and can be transfected and even cultivated in vitro up to the oocyst stage. We wanted to elucidate how the known oocyst wall-forming proteins are preserved in this rodent Eimeria species compared to other Eimeria. In newly obtained genomics data, we were able to identify different gametocyte genes that are orthologous to already known gam genes involved in the oocyst wall formation of avian Eimeria species. These genes appeared putatively as single exon genes, but cDNA analysis showed alternative splicing events in the transcripts. The analysis of the translated sequence revealed different conserved motifs but also dissimilar regions in GAM proteins, as well as polymorphic regions. The occurrence of an underrepresented gam56 gene version suggests the existence of a second distinct E. nieschulzi genotype within the E. nieschulzi Landers isolate that we maintain.

The genus Eimeria (Apicomplexa, Coccidia) provides a wide range of different species with different hosts to study common and variable features within the genus and its species. A common characteristic of all known Eimeria species is the oocyst, the infectious stage where its life cycle starts and ends. In our study, we utilized Eimeria nieschulzi as a model organism. This rat-specific parasite has complex oocyst morphology and can be transfected and even cultivated in vitro up to the oocyst stage. We wanted to elucidate how the known oocyst wall-forming proteins are preserved in this rodent Eimeria species compared to other Eimeria. In newly obtained genomics data, we were able to identify different gametocyte genes that are orthologous to already known gam genes involved in the oocyst wall formation of avian Eimeria species. These genes appeared putatively as single exon genes, but cDNA analysis showed alternative splicing events in the transcripts. The analysis of the translated sequence revealed different conserved motifs but also dissimilar regions in GAM proteins, as well as polymorphic regions. The occurrence of an underrepresented gam56 gene version suggests the existence of a second distinct E. nieschulzi genotype within the E. nieschulzi Landers isolate that we maintain.

Bulge-helix-bulge (BHB) elements guide the enzymatic splicing machinery that in Archaea excises introns from tRNAs, rRNAs from their primary precursor, and accounts for the assembly of piece-wise encoded tRNAs. This processing pathway renders the intronic sequences as circularized RNA species. Although archaeal transcriptomes harbor a large number of circular small RNAs, it remains unknown whether most or all of them are produced through BHB-dependent splicing. We therefore conduct a genome-wide survey of BHB elements of a phylogenetically diverse set of archaeal species and complement this approach by searching for BHB-like structures in the vicinity of circularized transcripts. We find that besides tRNA introns, the majority of box C/D snoRNAs is associated with BHB elements. Not all circularized sRNAs, however, can be explained by BHB elements, suggesting that there is at least one other mechanism of RNA circularization at work in Archaea. Pattern search methods were unable, however, to identify common sequence and/or secondary structure features that could be characteristic for such a mechanism.

To form complex organisms characterized by different tissues with specialized functions, cells must acquire distinct identities during development. Yet, all the cells of an organism are equipped with the same genomic information. Elucidating the mechanisms that regulate the determination of a cell identity, i.e. the cell-fate commitment, is a main purpose in developmental biology. Numerous studies focused on genes that are activated or repressed at each stage of differentiation, identifying several key regulators of development. However, this approach ignores the transcript variability derived from alternative splicing, the transcriptional process by which different gene coding segments, i.e. exons, are combined giving rise to multiple transcripts and proteins from the same gene. With the advent of novel sequencing technologies, it is becoming clear that alternative splicing is widespread in higher organisms, regulates several processes and presents tissue- and cell-specificity. In mammals, the brain shows the highest degree of alternative splicing, with neurons expressing a high variety of splice variants. In this project I investigated whether and how alternative splicing could regulate cell-fate determination in the context of the embryonic development of the mouse neocortex, a highly complex structure presenting several different neuronal subtypes generated at specific time points. For this purpose, I analyzed transcriptome data of cells of the neurogenic lineage isolated from the developing mouse neocortex at subsequent stages of differentiation. I showed that the expression pattern of the proteins regulating splicing, i.e. the splicing factors, changes during neocortical development. By employing several bioinformatic tools, I described the splicing profile that characterizes each differentiation stage and, for the first time, I identified the splicing events that mark cell-fate commitment to a neurogenic identity. Alternative splicing mostly involved genes with a role in nervous system development, cell growth and signaling, mainly leading to the production of alternative protein isoforms. Splicing choices taken during the neurogenic commitment were kept throughout neurogenesis. Thus, exons that start to be included during cell-fate determination are always included in post-mitotic neurons. Exons gained during neurogenic commitment were characterized by strong features in their upstream intron, presented a general short length with an overrepresentation of microexons in the 3-27 nucleotides length range and showed an enrichment for binding motifs of the neural splicing factor nSR100. In vivo manipulation in the embryonic mouse neocortex highlighted isoform-specific effects on neocortical development, strongly suggesting a causal relationship between alternative splicing choices and cell-fate commitment. Moreover, the higher cell-specificity offered by the present dataset, compared to similar studies, allowed a better understanding of previously identified splicing events that characterize the nervous system and the relationships between neural-specific splicing factors.:Table of Contents Abstract I Zusammenfassung III Table of Contents V List of Figures VII List of Tables IX Abbreviations X Gene abbreviations XII 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Neurogenesis during embryonic development 2 1.1.1 Formation and patterning of the neural tube 2 1.1.2 Neural progenitors in the dorsal telencephalon 6 1.1.3 Neurogenesis 8 1.1.4 Regulation of neurogenesis 10 1.1.5 A novel tool to investigate cell-fate determination in the central nervous system: the Btg2RFP/Tubb3GFP mouse line 13 1.2 Alternative splicing: an additional level of genomic regulation 15 1.2.1 The splicing reaction 16 1.2.2 What makes splicing alternative? 18 1.2.3 Regulation of alternative splicing 19 1.2.4 The challenge to detect splicing 23 1.2.5 New sequencing technologies reveal a high transcriptome complexity 29 1.2.6 Splicing in nervous system development 31 1.2.7 Aims of the project 36 2 Materials and methods 38 2.1 Materials 38 2.1.1 Bacteria, cells, mouse strains 38 2.1.2 Vector 38 2.1.3 Primers 38 2.1.4 Chemicals and buffers 41 2.1.5 Antibodies 42 2.1.6 Kits and enzymes 42 2.2 Methods 43 2.2.1 Animal experiments 43 2.2.2 Molecular biology 44 2.2.3 Immunohistochemistry 46 2.2.4 Bioinformatics 47 3 Results 53 3.1 Splicing factors are differentially expressed during neurogenic commitment and neurogenesis 53 3.2 Detection of alternative splicing 55 3.2.1 Isoform-switching 55 3.2.2 Exon usage and splicing events 57 3.3 Validation 62 3.3.1 The isoform switching method has a poor validation rate 62 3.3.2 Analysis at the exon level has a high rate of validation 65 3.4 Pattern and representation of splicing events 67 3.4.1 Splicing choices during neurogenic commitment define the splicing profiles of neurons 67 3.4.2 Splicing events: microexon inclusion characterizes neurogenic commitment 69 3.5 Alternative splicing changes the protein output of genes involved in neurogenesis 75 3.5.1 Spliced genes are involved in neurogenesis and signaling 75 3.5.2 Impact of alternative splicing on the proteome 77 3.6 Splicing regulation: neural exon features and splicing factor binding 79 3.6.1 Included neural exons are short and preceded by strong exon-definition features 79 3.6.2 Early included exons are enriched for nSR100 binding sites 85 3.7 The Btg2RFP/Tubb3GFP mouse line outperforms previous models for the study of cell-type-specific splicing in the brain 88 3.8 In vivo manipulation of splice variants 90 4 Discussion 94 4.1 The combination of different bioinformatic approaches allows an accurate identification of splicing events at the exon-level 95 4.2 Splicing choices during neurogenic commitment establish a neural signature characterized by microexon inclusion 97 4.3 Splicing during neocortical development leads to the generation of alternative protein isoforms in genes involved in neurogenesis and signaling 98 4.4 Neural exons are short and present strong features facilitating inclusion 101 4.5 Neural exons are prevalently regulated by nSR100 during neurogenic commitment 102 4.6 In vivo overexpression of splice variants highlights isoform-specific functions in neurogenic commitment 105 4.7 Concluding remarks and future perspectives 108 5 Supplementary figures 110 6 References 118 Acknowledgments 137 Anlange I 138 Anlange II 139

During evolution, the mammalian cerebral cortex has undergone a considerable increase in size and complexity. The emergence of the cortical structure begins during embryonic development when neural stem cells initially undergo proliferative division to expand their pool and then switch to neurogenic division, generating differentiating progenitors that will give rise to neurons. Although the intrinsic molecular mechanisms instructing the switch from proliferative to neurogenic division have been well-studied, most work to date has focused on gene expression. However, as a consequence of transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation, different transcripts can arise from a single gene. In particular, the process of alternative splicing occurs at a high frequency in the nervous system and can lead to changes in protein output regardless of gene expression. In the past years, the role of post- transcriptional mechanisms in neuronal maturation and function have been extensively investigated, mostly focusing on the function of specific isoforms or RNA binding proteins. Yet, the role of alternative splicing in generating transcript and protein diversity during neurogenic commitment is still unknown. Therefore, I used a combination of different RNA sequencing technologies and bioinformatic tools to reveal the transcript and protein diversity of proliferating progenitors, differentiating progenitors, and neurons isolated from double reporter mouse line. I identified widespread isoform diversity and many novel transcripts amongst expressed genes in the developing cortex. To date, this analysis represents the most comprehensive characterization of full-length transcript diversity at different stages of the neurogenic lineage in the developing mouse cortex. The resulting transcriptome annotation was used to quantify changes in exon inclusion across cells of the neurogenic lineage and identified alternative splicing events potentially involved in neurogenic commitment. These alternative splicing events were enriched in the coding sequence of isoforms, indicating that they might be relevant for protein diversity generation in the developing cortex. During neurogenesis, alternative splicing events were less enriched in regions that could disrupt or strongly affect protein structure and function, such as transmembrane regions, active sites, and domains. Interestingly, my results indicated that alternative splicing enables increased functional diversity by modulating protein-protein interaction sites and signaling properties of proteins. Still, further studies are required to delineate the causal relationship between these alternative splicing choices and cell-fate commitment. Applying a similar approach to other mammalian species, including humans, has the potential to uncover species-specific innovations and conserved features that underlie evolutionary cortex expansion. Moreover, understanding the function of isoforms during neural development could provide important insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in the onset of neurodevelopmental disorders. Therefore, the higher cell-specificity offered by the present dataset, compared to similar studies, allowed not only a better understanding of transcript and protein diversity generated by alternative splicing in the nervous system and highlighted potential functional consequences, but also shed light on the advantages of applying such strategy to address different biological questions.

It is currently believed that the splicing of most pre-mRNAs occurs, at least in part, co-transcriptionally. In order to validate this principle in yeast and establish an experimental system for monitoring spliceosome assembly in vivo, I have employed the chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay to study co-transcriptional splicing events. Here, I use ChIP to examine key questions with respect to the recent proposal that RNA polymerase II (Pol II) recruits pre-mRNA splicing factors to active genes. In my thesis, I address: 1) whether the U1 snRNP, which binds to the 5¡¦ splice site of each intron, is recruited co-transcriptionally in vivo and 2) if so, where along the length of active genes the U1 snRNP is concentrated. U1 snRNP accumulates on downstream positions of genes containing introns but not within promoter regions or along intronless genes. More specifically, accumulation correlated with the presence and position of the intron, indicating that the intron is necessary for co-transcriptional U1 snRNP recruitment and/or retention (Kotovic et al., 2003). In contrast to capping enzymes, which bind directly to Pol II (Komarnitsky et al., 2000; Schroeder et al., 2000), the U1 snRNP is poorly detected in promoter regions, except in genes harboring promoter-proximal introns. Detection of the U1 snRNP is dependent on RNA synthesis and is abolished by intron removal. Microarray data reveals that intron-containing genes are preferentially selected by ChIP with the U1 snRNP furthermore indicating recruitment specificity to introns. Because U1 snRNP levels decrease on downstream regions of intron-containing genes with long second exons, our lab is expanding the study to 3¡¦ splice site factors in hopes to address co-transcriptional splicing. In my thesis, I also focus on questions pertaining to the requirements for recruitment of the U1 snRNP to sites of transcription. To test the proposal that the cap-binding complex (CBC) promotes U1 snRNP recognition of the 5¡¦ splice site (Colot et al., 1996), I use a ?´CBC mutant strain and determine U1 snRNP accumulation by ChIP. Surprisingly, lack of the CBC has no effect on U1 snRNP recruitment. The U1 snRNP component Prp40p has been identified as playing a pivotal role in not only cross-intron bridging (Abovich and Rosbash, 1997), but also as a link between Pol II transcription and splicing factor recruitment (Morris and Greenleaf, 2000). My data shows that Prp40p recruitment mirrors that of other U1 snRNP proteins, in that it is not detected on promoter regions, suggesting that Prp40p does not constitutively bind the phosphorylated C-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II as previously proposed. This physical link between Pol II transcription and splicing factor recruitment is further tested in Prp40p mutant strains, in which U1 snRNP is detected at normal levels. Therefore, U1 snRNP recruitment to transcription units is not dependent on Prp40p activity. My data indicates that co-transcriptional U1 snRNP recruitment is not dependent on the CBC or Prp40p and that any effects of these players on spliceosome assembly must be reflected in later spliceosome events. My data contrasts the proposed transcription factory model in which Pol II plays a central role in the recruitment of mRNA processing factors to TUs. According to my data, splicing factor recruitment acts differently than capping enzyme and 3¡¦ end processing factor recruitment; U1 snRNP does not accumulate at promoter regions of intron-containing genes or on intronless genes rather, accumulation is based on the synthesis of the intron. These experiments have lead me to propose a kinetic model with respect to the recruitment of splicing factors to active genes. In this model, U1 snRNP accumulation at the 5¡¦ splice site requires a highly dynamic web of protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions to occur, ultimately leading to the recruitment and/or stabilization of the U1 snRNP.

No description available.

No description available.

It is currently believed that the splicing of most pre-mRNAs occurs, at least in part, co-transcriptionally. In order to validate this principle in yeast and establish an experimental system for monitoring spliceosome assembly in vivo, I have employed the chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay to study co-transcriptional splicing events. Here, I use ChIP to examine key questions with respect to the recent proposal that RNA polymerase II (Pol II) recruits pre-mRNA splicing factors to active genes. In my thesis, I address: 1) whether the U1 snRNP, which binds to the 5¡¦ splice site of each intron, is recruited co-transcriptionally in vivo and 2) if so, where along the length of active genes the U1 snRNP is concentrated. U1 snRNP accumulates on downstream positions of genes containing introns but not within promoter regions or along intronless genes. More specifically, accumulation correlated with the presence and position of the intron, indicating that the intron is necessary for co-transcriptional U1 snRNP recruitment and/or retention (Kotovic et al., 2003). In contrast to capping enzymes, which bind directly to Pol II (Komarnitsky et al., 2000; Schroeder et al., 2000), the U1 snRNP is poorly detected in promoter regions, except in genes harboring promoter-proximal introns. Detection of the U1 snRNP is dependent on RNA synthesis and is abolished by intron removal. Microarray data reveals that intron-containing genes are preferentially selected by ChIP with the U1 snRNP furthermore indicating recruitment specificity to introns. Because U1 snRNP levels decrease on downstream regions of intron-containing genes with long second exons, our lab is expanding the study to 3¡¦ splice site factors in hopes to address co-transcriptional splicing. In my thesis, I also focus on questions pertaining to the requirements for recruitment of the U1 snRNP to sites of transcription. To test the proposal that the cap-binding complex (CBC) promotes U1 snRNP recognition of the 5¡¦ splice site (Colot et al., 1996), I use a ?´CBC mutant strain and determine U1 snRNP accumulation by ChIP. Surprisingly, lack of the CBC has no effect on U1 snRNP recruitment. The U1 snRNP component Prp40p has been identified as playing a pivotal role in not only cross-intron bridging (Abovich and Rosbash, 1997), but also as a link between Pol II transcription and splicing factor recruitment (Morris and Greenleaf, 2000). My data shows that Prp40p recruitment mirrors that of other U1 snRNP proteins, in that it is not detected on promoter regions, suggesting that Prp40p does not constitutively bind the phosphorylated C-terminal domain (CTD) of Pol II as previously proposed. This physical link between Pol II transcription and splicing factor recruitment is further tested in Prp40p mutant strains, in which U1 snRNP is detected at normal levels. Therefore, U1 snRNP recruitment to transcription units is not dependent on Prp40p activity. My data indicates that co-transcriptional U1 snRNP recruitment is not dependent on the CBC or Prp40p and that any effects of these players on spliceosome assembly must be reflected in later spliceosome events. My data contrasts the proposed transcription factory model in which Pol II plays a central role in the recruitment of mRNA processing factors to TUs. According to my data, splicing factor recruitment acts differently than capping enzyme and 3¡¦ end processing factor recruitment; U1 snRNP does not accumulate at promoter regions of intron-containing genes or on intronless genes rather, accumulation is based on the synthesis of the intron. These experiments have lead me to propose a kinetic model with respect to the recruitment of splicing factors to active genes. In this model, U1 snRNP accumulation at the 5¡¦ splice site requires a highly dynamic web of protein-protein and protein-RNA interactions to occur, ultimately leading to the recruitment and/or stabilization of the U1 snRNP.