Sleep quality is an aspect of sleep on which there is currently a lack of research and, in particular, there is little published data related to the quality of sleep obtained by athletes. Sleep quality is difficult to define because it includes quantitative aspects of sleep such as sleep duration, sleep latency and number of arousals as well as the subjective aspects such as ‘depth’ and ‘restfulness’ of sleep. Athletes require more sleep than the non-athlete population in order to recover from their exertions and, although evidence suggests that athletes are concerned about the impact that inadequate sleep has upon performance, there is a paucity of literature examining how poor sleep patterns affect the athletes’ psychological states during training and competition. Due to the scarcity of literature examining how the quality of sleep affects the psychological states of athletes, very little research has focused on athletes’ sleep and mood within the South African (SA) context. A quantitative research method with a combination of an exploratory and descriptive approach was employed. The sample of this study comprised of 87 athletes. The researcher made use of a purposive, non-randomized sampling technique. A self-report biographical questionnaire, the Profile of Mood States 2 – Adults (POMS 2), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Adults (STAI-A) and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was administered once a week on the same day for the duration of 4 weeks. Descriptive and inferential statistics, Pearson R correlation and One-sample t-test were used to analyse the data. The researcher obtained the necessary authorisation to conduct the study and followed the ethical rules of conduct. Results indicated that there were certain relationships between the quality of sleep and mood states among athletes such as fatigue-inertia, anxiety (state and trait), depression-dejection, anger-hostility, vigour-activity and confusion-bewilderment. There was sufficient evidence to conclude that there was a significant between-week (week 1 and 2, 2 and 3, 3 and 4) difference in fatigue-inertia and sleep quality. Apart from differences in fatigue-inertia and sleep quality scores over the four weeks, all other results indicate a constant outcome over the four weeks for mood states and sleep quality. The results also indicated sufficient evidence to conclude that although there was evidence of a relationship between quality of sleep and mood states, it was not possible to make a definitive conclusion regarding whether sleep quality, anxiety, and depression were bi-directionally related. Despite some of the limitations to the study, the findings were thought to contribute in a valuable way to furthering knowledge regarding the quality of sleep and mood states among athletes. The current data suggest that monitoring athletes’ sleep and mood states may be a determining factor for satisfactory performance; therefore, the reasons for poor sleep quality should be identified in order to implement any coping strategies needed.

There is a general consensus among sport coaches and practitioners that it is better to work with a cohesive team. Research on cohesion has provided positive links between cohesion and performance as well as the overall well-being of the team and its members. The purpose of this study is to develop and evaluate a cohesion-building programme under an Action Research paradigm. The Group Environment Questionnaire, in parallel with focus group discussions were used to assist in the development and evaluation of a cohesion-building programme tailored to the specific needs of the Rhodes University men’s basketball 1st team. The team is known to be a good team but it was missing something that made it become great. Fostering higher cohesiveness was deemed to be the missing link to the chain of success. Various changes were brought to the 1) team structure, 2) team processes, 3) team environment to enhance the team’s cohesiveness levels. It was found that the programme was positive and powerful in that it accelerated the process of cohesion building within the team. It was also found that the programme had the power to transcend demographical barriers and unite people from diverse backgrounds. Finally, the programme increased the team’s performance level and enabled it to achieve objectives that were never achieved by any other men’s basketball team at Rhodes University before. Naturally there are going to be some ups and downs, especially if you have individuals trying to achieve at a high level. But when we stepped in between the lines, we knew what we were capable of doing. When a pressure situation presented itself, we were plugged into one another like a cohesive unit. That’s why we were able to come back so often and win so many close games. And that’s why we were able to beat more talented team. - Michael Jordan (former Chicago Bulls; NBA Hall of Famer).

The professional turn in sports has prompted the search for explanations beyond the physical when discussing quality of performance. Mental Toughness has been recognised as one of the most important psychological attributes in achieving performance excellence across multiple sport settings. Yet, despite this, little research has been conducted into mental toughness development. This research seeks to answer the question: What insights can the development and implementation of a mental toughness programme for a semi-professional South African cricket team provide regarding Mental Toughness development? Based on a theoretical framework of mental toughness in cricket, a programme was developed in collaboration with the Border Cricket Team and Coaches. Incorporating elements that focussed on education, environment, awareness and mental skills, the programme was implemented in both individual and group settings during the off- and pre-seasons. An analysis of the participants’ experiences identified the need for a theoretical understanding of mental toughness within teams, facilitating the design of interventions that integrate the team and the individual. Future programmes should include measures of mastery, and individually customised approaches to mental toughness enhancement that acknowledge the potential contextual and individual variation in mental toughness.

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This research was conducted to explore the relationship between self-actualization and the Japanese martial art of Aikido. Time spent in active practice of Aikido served as the predictor variable and the quasi-experimental intervention. The Personal Orientation Dimensions served as the measuring instrument foe self- actualization. The 13 scale scores were the dependent variables. Of the most significant results, six scales were chosen to form the basis for the structured interview. The interview was conducted with five practicing Black Belt Aikidoists. The research subjects were all Aikido students from four different schools with a common lineage. Later efforts to expend outside the lineage were not productive. There were three groups in this research. Those who were tested at least once, those who were tested twice, and the five selected Aikido Black Belts for the interview. The first group was the Total Group and consisted of all respondents and the scores of the first sampling of the Test-Retest Group (n=48, 24 females, 24 males). Sixteen respondents were between 18 and 30 years old, 25 between 31 and 45, and 7 were 46 years old and above. Average months practicing Aikido was 32.95 with an average of 3.58 times per week and 4.6 hours per week. A Multiple Regression showed significant positive changes in four scales at the p<.01 level and six scales showed positive directional change at the p<.05 level. This gives some support to the hypothesis that the active practice of Aikido may contribute to self-actualization over time. The Analysis of Variance performed on the dependent means of the Test-Retest Group produced one positive direction for one scale p<.05, n=ll. This was not considered significant for this study. The interviews focused on the ccntent of six of the most significant scales and confirmed the quantitative findings. Additional information about the effects of Aikido upon students based on the interviews is presented. The study provides additional support for the use of Eastern self-actualization technology with Western students. Possibilities for use include school systems, therapist training, and promoting the general mental health of the population.

The purpose of the study was to create a questionnaire to identify underlying dimensions of athletes' attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. A total of 1138 athletes (625 males, 513 females) representing 36 sports from four levels of participation were used to develop the Sport Psychology Attitudes Questionnaire (SPAQ). In Study I, exploratory factor analysis produced a two-factor solution that accounted for 37.1% of the overall variance: (a) belief in the credibility of sport psychology (14 items) and (b) preference for similarity with a sport psychology consultant (SPC) (7 items). Three items were omitted following item analysis, and nine items were eliminated after failing to load higher than the cut-off value of .40 on either of the factors. In Study II, confirmatory factor analysis supported the two-factor model, and multigroup comparison in Study III demonstrated that the model fit well for both male and female samples. As for validity, the SPAQ factors predictably (a) distinguished between athletes with and without previous experience with a SPC, (b) related to ratings of helpfulness/satisfaction related to a previous experience with a SPC, and (c) correlated with willingness to see a SPC for help in the future. Also, the SPAQ factors were related, as predicted, to (a) belief that practicing sport psychology skills will lead to desirable outcomes, (b) interpersonal openness, and (c) affective prejudice toward identified outgroups but were not related to level of self-concept as hypothesized. Contrary to predictions, Gender X Race X SPC experience MANOVAs revealed no gender or racial differences in attitudes toward sport psychology consultation. It was concluded that the SPAQ is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing a set of important attitudinal dimensions with regard to seeking sport psychology consultation and a useful instrument for research and practice. Theoretical and empirical support for the interpretation of the SPAQ factor structure, directions for future research, and practical implications are discussed.

This study examined the applicability of the Sport Commitment Model for a group of elite, professional athletes. The model proposes that an athlete's commitment will increase as sport enjoyment, personal investments, social constraints, and involvement opportunities increase and will decrease with an increase in involvement opportunities. The influence of identification as an athlete, a determinant of commitment not included in the original model, was also examined. One hundred and eighty three professional football players from the Canadian Football League (CFL) (n = 121) and National Football League (NFL) (n = 69) participated in the study. Each subject completed a modified version of the original questionnaire developed to test the constructs in the Sport Commitment Model (Scanlan, Simons, Carpenter, Schmidt, & Keeler, 1993) during a team meeting. Internal consistency reliabilities for the final items in all seven scales were acceptable. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated marginal overall fit (AGFI = 0.757) demonstrating good construct validity and discriminant validity for each scale. Zero-order correlations between commitment and its predictor constructs were significant and in the hypothesized direction for all predictor constructs except social constraints. The correlation between commitment and social constraints was negative and nonsignificant. The simultaneous regression analysis results found the predictor constructs accounted for 38% of the variance in commitment. Identification uniquely accounted for the most variance followed by enjoyment, involvement alternatives, and involvement opportunities. Only personal investments and social constraints did not contribute a significant amount of unique variance to sport commitment. The importance and meaning of the relationships between commitment and its determinants for professional athletes are discussed, as well as directions for future research.

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