The focus of this dissertation is imperfectly competitive sports labor markets and the effects of league labor policy on player mobility, compensation, and job location choice. The analyses conducted herein contributes primarily to a broad area of research within sports economics that generally uses changes in league labor rules to examine employer monopsony power and the validity of the Invariance Principle, which states that the distribution of playing talent in a sports league is invariant to the ownership of the rights to players’ services. After a critical review of the literature and some background on the National Basketball Association (NBA), a broad-to-narrow approach is used to present evidence from three empirical essays. Essay one examines the effects of 40 years’ worth of institutional change on competitive balance in the NBA. Essay two investigates the effects of more recent free agency rules on player mobility and pay. Finally, essay three narrows the focus a bit further to the effects of nonwage job characteristics on player wages and the implications of such nonwage attributes for player movement. / Tourism and Sport

Corporate social marketing (CSM) refers to "a means whereby a corporation supports the development and/or implementation of a behavior change campaign intended to improve public health, safety, the environment, or community well-being" (Kotler & Lee, 2005a, p.114). The examination of CSM by professional sport organizations (PSOs) is significant since these organizations have the potential to serve as a particularly meaningful vehicle for promoting socially beneficial ideas and behavior (Chalip, 2006; Kaufman & Wolff, 2010; Loakimidis, 2007; Smith & Westerbeek, 2007). Despite this, little investigation has been undertaken in this research area (Irwin, Irwin, Miller, Somes, & Richey, 2010; Sparvero, 2010). Furthermore, no comprehensive framework exists that explains the process of how CSM influences consumer voluntary behavior in general business disciplines (Du, Sen, & Bhattacharya, 2008). The purpose of this study was to address this gap and investigate the role of corporate credibility in understanding the process of how PSOs influence consumer voluntary behavior through their CSM initiatives. The current research focused on corporate credibility based on previous research findings indicating that the credibility of a message source greatly influences the persuasiveness of its communication (e.g., Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953; Pornpitakpan, 2004). This study developed a theoretical model positing that consumers would formulate their perceptions regarding the credibility of a PSO on supporting environmental protection ("environmental credibility") based on: (1) characteristics of the organization, (2) characteristics of the CSM initiative, and (3) characteristics of the cause. Environmental credibility, in turn, was expected to influence consumer pro-environmental behavior measured by daily recycling involvement and recycling intentions during the PSO's home games. The model further proposed that value congruence would have mediating and moderating effects on the relationship between environmental credibility and pro-environmental behavior. To test this theoretical model, the study collected data from fans of two PSOs that currently operate environmental initiatives. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was employed to analyze the data (n = 368) obtained through web-based questionnaires. The SEM results indicated that the following four of the eight hypothesized antecedents of environmental credibility had significant positive effects: general credibility, perceived effort, perceived impact, and cause importance. Furthermore, environmental credibility was found to positively influence the two recycling behaviors as expected. Contrary to the theoretical propositions, however, the results did not find support for the positive mediating and moderating effect of value congruence. Overall, the findings of this study contribute to the literature by highlighting the role of corporate credibility when PSOs engage in CSM initiatives. Moreover, this research, as well as future endeavors, helps PSOs become an effective vehicle for promoting socially beneficial behavior, which ideally can lead to positive social change. / Tourism and Sport

This thesis provides a review of after school research with a special focus on selected research methods. It identifies several important methodological issues in the literature which have contributed to a sometimes confusing body of research for after school program coordinators and service staff to interpret. The potential utility of evaluability assessment (EA) in the field of after school program research is discussed, and EA is proposed as a pre-evaluation method to be adapted as the first step in the scientific process for subsequent evaluative research. EA techniques are then applied in the initial phase of a partnership with Philadelphia Parks and Recreation's after school program. Structural and theoretical recommendations are provided, and specific topics for future research initiatives are identified. The incorporation of a specified EA criteria into the evaluative process is recommended, so as to provide timely, relevant, and useful information for both practitioners and academics. This thesis aims to further reduce the disconnect between research and practice in the field of after school, out-of-school-time, and youth recreation research. / Tourism and Sport

Esports, or competitive video gaming competitions, have grown in popularity to have millions of global fans, spectators, and participants. Sport organizations, including leagues and teams, are increasingly affiliating, or dovetailing, with esports organizations. Although the meteoric rise of esports presents sport organizations with growth opportunities to connect with these markets, esports remain shrouded in uncertainty, stigma, and stereotypes that impede the convergence of industries. The growing affiliation between these two industries allows researchers to gain insight into the strategic actions of sport organizations despite the institutional constraints that influence their behavior. This dissertation includes three essays that address—with respect to esports—the (1) strategic resources and core competencies of sport organizations; (2) sensemaking of actors within sport organizations; and (3) institutional creation strategies within heavily regulated fields. Essay one consists of an explanatory, qualitative study of professional sport teams diversifying into the esports industry. As sport organizations mature, they will need to seek growth opportunities beyond their core industry and compete with formally tangentially related firms. The nascent esports industry has been embraced by sport organizations (e.g., leagues, teams), many of whom use existing resources and best practices from traditional sport to manage their esports property. This trend provides a salient context to identify how sport organizations are using their resources in a new marketspace and what they can provide to non-sport organizations. Guided by strategic management perspectives of the resource-based view (RBV), knowledge-based view (KBV), and resource orchestration (RO), the purpose of essay one is to examine how sport organizations leverage their core competencies to create a sustainable competitive advantage. The findings support the hypothesis that the existing resources of sport organizations such as physical venues and existing departments (e.g., legal, marketing, sales departments) are used to support sport organizations operations in the esports industry. Moreover, the findings identify that the tacit knowledge embedded in the human capital of sport organizations is a salient resource that helps them generate a competitive advantage against non-sport organizations. While tacit knowledge is a driver of competitive advantage, it is the supporting structures and departments that allows sport organizations to use this knowledge efficiently and effectively. Thus, by operating at the intersection of sport, entertainment, and media, sport organizations are increasingly competing with formally tangentially related firms, and can use their embedded resources and structure when competing with these firms. Essay two focuses on the integration of esports by a first-mover sport organization. Essay two employs an exploratory case study of the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball League (NBA) and their integration of an esports team. The 76ers were the first North American professional sports organization to purchase and integrate an esports team. Novel technologies and practices, such as esports, are surrounded by uncertainty and are generally met with resistance (Huber, 1990) with their integration contingent upon internal and external constituent support. Actors, individuals within the 76ers, had to position and garner support for esports, which are representative of the novel practices and technologies influencing the way sport organizations are managed. In essay two an institutional creation work perspective is linked with sensemaking and related constructs to examine how actors within the 76ers helped create and give meaning—sensemaking—to esports. The findings of essay two support how actors within the 76ers were able to foster a progressive culture to create a shared understanding of esports and use this understanding to influence the sensemaking of others—sensegiving. In particular, the 76ers linked the managerial components of operating a sports team to operating an esports team. Yet the 76ers were deliberate in their approach, limiting cross-promotions between the fanbases of the 76ers and their esports team. By connecting institutional creation work with sensemaking, essay two contributes to how actors can proactively take actions to garner constituent support. Moreover, the findings of essay two support that sensemaking is a critical antecedent of sensegiving, as a shared understanding within an organization is a necessary prerequisite to influence the sensemaking of others (i.e., sensegiving). Essay two provides actors within the field of sport integrating novel practices and activities (e.g., augmented and virtual reality, in-game sports betting, wearable fitness devices, mediated sports consumption) strategies to proactively garner support for their integration. Essay two focuses on the integration of esports by professional sport organizations. Essay three utilizes an exploratory qualitative approach to identify the institutional creation strategies associated with integrating collegiate esports programs within the heavily regulated field of U.S. collegiate athletics. The findings of essay three support how actors need to go beyond creating a shared understanding to integrate novel activities. Actors must also influence the cognitive schema of other actors to facilitate the integration of novel practices and activities. Specifically, they can build on the concept of sportification (Heere, 2018) to both communicate and present esports in a manner consistent with traditional sports, using the concept of sport as a legitimizing agent. Collectively, the three essays support how sport organizations can seize growth opportunities with respect to their institutional environment. Sport organizations must recognize their institutional confines, but also can be strategic in their actions by focusing on their financial performance and sustainability in lieu of their constraints. This research contributes to a deeper understanding regarding how the institutional and strategic concerns of sport organizations influence their efficient and effective management. The research lays a foundation for a stream of future research on the strategic growth and long-term viability of sport organizations both within and beyond the esports industry. / Tourism and Sport

This dissertation focuses on the digital presentation of athletification, a process through which non-athletes incorporate an athletic identity into their self-concept. Although many studies have explored consumer behavior driven by team identification and how athletes manage impressions on social media, extant literature has devoted little attention to the symbolic meaning of virtual athletic identity and its impact on consumption from a non-athlete’s perspective. Using a multimethod approach, this dissertation is divided into three standalone essays and examines the following in the context of influencer marketing: 1) the use and role of digital athletic identity in building a digital self-brand; 2) the motivation and consequences of constructing a digital identity; and 3) the impact of a digital athletic identity on consumers. This dissertation contributes to the literature by constructing a theoretical foundation for athletification as a self-branding tool on social media and uncovering its influence on consumers’ attitudes and behaviors. These studies offer insights for social media influencers and marketers attempting to leverage their impacts on consumers. Findings also provide actionable strategies that could improve the promotional messages presented online. / Tourism and Sport

Building upon the Sport Experience Design (SX) framework of Funk (2017), this dissertation investigates consumer experience with activewear in different usage contexts. The intersection of user and context in the SX framework is examined by integrating the means-end chain theory of Gutman (1982) and the situation research of Belk (1975). This theoretical integration creates a conceptual approach to understand how consumers construct and evaluate the sport experience in different contexts. Three research questions were asked about what types of perceptions consumers develop with activewear, how the perceptions form the means-end chain structure, and how the structure varies across fitness and non-fitness contexts. Findings of Study 1 revealed five important attributes (i.e., fashion design, color and pattern, fit, functional design, and fabric), four consequences (i.e., physical appearance, physical comfort, social relationship, and task facilitation), and three end-state values (i.e., fun and enjoyment, self-respect, and sense of accomplishment) that connect and form the means-end chain structure. Informed by findings of Study 1, Study 2 found the direction of means-end chain structure and its specific paths vary across fitness and non-fitness contexts. Findings contribute to the SX framework by using the means-end chain theory as a theoretical approach to examine consumers’ experience with a sport product while considering the context in which the product is used. Practical implications are provided on how brands can link product attributes with consumers’ self-concepts to enhance the consumer experience. / Tourism and Sport

Student affairs personnel are often charged with the task of creating a strong sense of community (SOC) on university campuses. Sport is among one of the many extracurricular activities that historically has been used to meet this need for community among students. Yet, how and when a sense of community is created within a sport context has not been appropriately addressed in literature. Utilizing a symbolic interactionalist theoretical framework, this study employed a grounded theory approach and uncovered the necessary factors for creating a sense of community within two intercollegiate sport settings. First, 21 former university sport club participants were interviewed regarding their experiences. The results revealed that Common Interest, Leadership Opportunities, Amateurism/ Voluntary Activity, and Competition were the most critical components to creating a sense of community. These results along with the results of Warner and Dixon’s (in review; see Appendix F) sense of community study among varsity athletes, which concluded that Administrative Consideration, Leadership Opportunities, Equity in Administrative Decisions, Competition, and Social Spaces were the key factors to foster a sense of community, were then used to guide focus groups. Eight focus groups consisting of 39 current varsity and sport club athletes were then conducted to further examine and explain the differences and similarities that emerged between the two sense of community in sport models. The results propose a broad based sense of community within sport theory that considers the contextual contingencies surrounding an athlete-driven versus a professionally-administered sport model. The results contribute to community building and sport management theory, and provide practical solutions for enhancing the intercollegiate sport experience. The implications and philosophical differences between an athlete-directed sport experiences versus a more formalized and structured sport model are also discussed. / text

In this study I examine foul calls by NBA referees alongside the difference in aggressiveness of twelve NBA basketball teams as they compete for the Championship Title. I aim to identify referee biases that increase the likelihood of the NBA Finals ending in a later game due to league revenue incentives. My data consists of 91 individual NBA Finals games played between the 2001 and 2016 NBA Finals. After controlling for changes in play as well as the difference in aggressiveness, I find that NBA referee’s foul calls are more dependent on a call on the opposing team in situations with a larger series score spread. Additionally, I identify a consistent officiating bias towards the home team. My results imply an effort by the NBA to increase the probability of the series ending in a later game, possibly motivated by increased revenues for the league and all parties involved.

This chapter discusses atmospherics as a sport marketing strategy. Even though it has traditional retail roots, atmospherics have emerged as a strategy that may be utilized in the physical, online, and mobile sport environments. A comprehensive review of major traditional and sports atmospheric variables, online atmospheric variables, and applications to sport are discussed. In addition, the spectator experience cycle is introduced with atmospheric correlations. The purpose of the chapter is to explain why atmospherics are important to the sport industry and to demonstrate how sport marketers may use physical, online, or mobile atmospherics to enhance spectator experience, increase loyalty, impact attitude, consumer choice, and impact purchase behavior. In addition, the chapter is meant to emphasize the importance of atmospherics to ultimately achieve promotional and marketing objectives. Finally, future research directions are recommended.

American football sport-related injuries have negatively affected millions of high school students' quality of life. Although there are studies about types, conditions, and psychological effects of injuries, a gap remained in the literature that involved injury prevention from the head coach's perspective. The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to fill this gap by exploring how head coaches perceive their role and responsibility in reducing sport-related injury occurrences. Sabatier and Weible's advocacy coalition, Diener and Dweck's achievement goal theory, and Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action framed this study. The research questions focused on the lived experiences from high school American football head coaches that will advance effective policy to reduce sport-related injuries. Criterion sampling was used to select 12 head coaches who received the NFL High School Coach of the Year award. Semi structured interviews were analyzed and interpreted according to Moustakas' data analysis methods. Key findings revealed there is an absence of national sport health and safety policy and support for high school American football head coaches as principal contributors and advocates for advancing effective policy to reduce sport-related injury occurrences. Recommendations from the research participants include implementation of standard policies by all state athletic associations to adopt minimum coach qualifications, injury and emergency protocols, and the presence of an athletic trainer/medical personnel at all sport activities. The implications for social change target advancing national policy focused on coach training, development, and monitoring processes for all high schools throughout the United States to support making American football safer.