The largest agricultural enterprise in the Appalachia region of Virginia is livestock production, particularly beef cow calf operations. However; topography and land holding patterns have resulted in a majority of small farms operating part time on less than 150 acres. These farms, while abundant, are not necessarily profitable. Management intensive grazing has been suggested as an alternative to traditional production practices to increase profitability. A profitability analysis was conducted by comparing a traditional style of cow-calf management where hay was produced on farm with a full machinery complement to a management intensive grazing farm where forages are stockpiled and all hay was purchased on farm, requiring minimal machinery investment. Four farms were simulated using Finpack Farm Management software by utilizing production data from the Virginia Tech Shenandoah Valley Agriculture Research and Extension Center and secondary financial data. The first two farms were listed as having a traditional style of management with hay production and two different stocking rates, 1.75 acres per cow-calf unit and 2.25 acres per cow-calf unit, respectively. Farm 3 and Farm 4 were simulated utilizing management intensive grazing and the two socking rates. It was found that while none of the farms actually show a profit the management intensive farms did outperform the traditional style farms. Farm 3 with the 1.75 acre per cow-calf unit stocking rate was the best performing farm financially. With these findings, beef cow producers will be able to make better management decisions and explore more profitable alternatives. / Master of Science

5 pp.

Grasslands are the most threatened terrestrial ecosystem in the world, and as they decline the species that depend on them also decline. Variable stocking rates and resting rangeland could be used by range managers to manipulate plant cover and create wildlife habitat. I used generalized linear mixed-models to evaluate how effects of rest on vegetation and songbirds varied based stocking rates previously applied from 2006-2014 in Grasslands National Park, Canada. My results indicate, in the mixed-grass prairie, succession is retrogressive following rest, and both vegetation and songbirds are resilient to grazing. Recovery of songbirds was linked to the recovery of habitat structure. Songbirds with flexible habitat requirements, such as Savannah and grasshopper sparrows, responded rapidly to livestock exclusion. The retrogressive nature of succession in mixed-grass prairie offers managers an opportunity to take chances when attempting to create wildlife habitat with livestock grazing, as risk of irreversible change is relatively low. / October 2016

Esse estudo foi composto por dois experimentos, o primeiro referente ao pastejo durante o período de verão e outono cujo objetivo foi avaliar a resposta de duas espécies forrageiras (capim-marandu e capim-mombaça) com doses crescentes de adubação. O segundo correspondeu ao período seco, quando os animais foram confinados com objetivo de avaliar a suplementação da silagem de cana-de-açúcar com duas fontes proteicas (farelo de soja e farelo de algodão) no desempenho animal de três categorias (vaca, novilha e bezerro). O estudo foi conduzido no Laboratório de Pesquisas em Gado de Corte (LPGC), da Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, campus Pirassununga. Para o experimento 1, a área experimental foi composta por 12 ha, divididos em oito módulos de pastejo (4 para o capim-marandu e 4 para o capim-mombaça), sendo utilizados 2 módulos como reserva, e cada módulo foi composto por 6 piquetes. O delineamento utilizado foi de blocos casualizados em arranjo fatorial 2x3 sendo duas espécies forrageiras (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu e Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça) e três doses de adubação por ciclo de pastejo, totalizando 42, 333 e 667 kg de N e K2O ha-1 para o capim-marandu e 50, 400 e 800 kg de N e K2O ha-1 para o capim-mombaça, avaliados durante o verão e outono. Foram avaliadas as seguintes características: altura de entrada e saída das forrageiras, período de descanso, taxa de lotação, composição bromatológica de folha e colmo, relação folha/colmo/material morto e desempenho dos animais em pastejo. Para avaliação do desempenho animal, foram utilizadas 60 novilhas da raça Nelore, divididas nas seis unidades experimentais. Para ajuste da taxa de lotação, foram utilizadas vacas e novilhas do rebanho LPGC. No experimento 2 os animais foram alocados nas áreas de lazer, dos módulos de pastejo. A alimentação foi composta por silagem de cana-de-açúcar e duas fontes proteicas (farelo de soja ou farelo de algodão), sendo a relação volumoso:concentrado de 80:20. Os animais receberam alimentação ad libitum uma vez ao dia e os animais foram pesados a cada 21 dias a fim de avaliar o desempenho individual. De maneira geral, o incremento na dose de adubação aumentou linearmente (P<0,05) a altura de entrada, altura de saída, período de descanso, taxa de lotação (6,0 até 10,5 UA ha-1), PB, Lig/FDN, DIVMS, DIVFDN, proporção de colmo, e reduziu o teor de MS e folhas. O capim-mombaça apresentou menor período de descanso e teor de Lig/FDN, e maior teor de MM, FDN e Lig/FDN (P<0,05) em relação ao capim-marandu. Na estação de verão houve um aumento na altura de entrada, no teor de FDN, Lig/FDN e redução no teor de PB, DIVMS e DIFDN. Para o desempenho animal, não houve diferença entre doses de adubação (P=0,55) e espécie forrageira (P=0,07), sendo média de 0,850 kg dia-1. A suplementação com fontes proteicas apresentou efeito para a interação categoria*tratamento no CMS (P=0,03), sendo que vacas alimentadas com farelo de soja tiveram maior CMS em comparação às alimentadas com farelo de algodão. O desempenho animal não foi influenciado pelas fontes proteicas (P=0,10), no entanto houve efeito para categoria animal (P<0,05), sendo 0,677, 0,416 e 0,244 kg dia-1 para vacas novilhas e bezerros. Portanto, o uso de doses crescentes de adubação e o confinamento das categorias de cria permitiu o aumento na eficiência do uso da terra. / This study consisted of two experiments, the first referring to rotational grazing system during the summer and fall that aimed to evaluate the response of two forage species (marandugrass and mombaça) with increasing doses of fertilizer. The second corresponded to dry season, when animals were confined to evaluate the supplementation with sugarcane silage with two protein sources (soybean meal and cottonseed meal) on animal performance of animal three categories (cow, heifer and calf). The study was conducted at the Laboratory of Research in Beef Cattle (LPGC), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, campus Pirassununga. For the experiment 1, the experimental area was composed of 12 ha, divided into eight grazing modules (4 for marandugrass and 4 for mombaça), 2 of these modules were used as reservation. The design was a randomized complete block in factorial arrangement of treatments 2 x 3 with 2 forage species (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu and Panicum maximum cv. Mombaça) and 3 fertilizer levels by grazing cycle, totalying 42, 333 and 667 kg N and K2O ha-1 for Marandu grass and 50, 400 and 800 kg N and K2O ha-1 for Mombaça grass evaluated during the summer and fall. The following characteristics were evaluated: pre and post-grazing sward height of forage, grazing interval, stocking rate, chemical composition of leaf and stem, leaf/stem/dead material ratio and performance of grazing animals. For evaluation of animal performance, we used 60 Nellore heifers, divided into six experimental units. To adjust the stocking rate, cows and heifers, from LPGC herd, were used. In experiment 2 the animals were kept at the resting areas of grazing modules. The feed consisted of sugarcane silage and two protein sources (soybean meal or cottonseed meal), at a forage-to-concentrate ratio 80:20. The animals were fed ad libitum once daily and weighed every 21 days to assess individual performance. Overall, the increase in the dose of fertilizer increased linearly (P < 0.05) the pre and post-grazing sward height, grazing interval, stocking rate (6.0 to 10.5 AU ha-1), PB, Lig/NDF, IVDMD, IVNDFD, stem content, and reduced DM content and leaves. The mombaça showed lower grazing interval and Lig/NDF content and higher MM content, NDF and Lig/NDF (P < 0.05) compared to brachiaria grass. In the summer season there was an increase in the pre-grazing sward height, NDF, Lig/NDF and reduced CP content and IVDMD and IVNDFD. For the animal performance, there was not differences between fertilization doses (P = 0.55) and forage specie (P = 0.07), the ADG was 0.850 kg dia-1. Supplementation with protein sources presented effect of category*treatment interaction for DMI of cows (P = 0.03), while cows fed soybean meal had higher DMI than those fed cottonseed meal. The ADG was not affected by protein sources (P = 0.10), however, there was a category effect (P < 0.05), the means was 0.677, 0.416 and 0.244 kg dia-1 for cows, heifers and calves, respectively. Therefore, the use of increasing doses of fertilizers and the feedlot of calf rearing categories increased the land use efficiency.

Objetivou-se com o presente estudo quantificar o efeito da suplementação energética em pasto durante o período das águas em tourinhos Nelore e ½ sangue Angus x Nelore na fase de recria sobre o desempenho e lotação animal, produtividade de carne total, comportamento ingestivo, consumo de forragem, terminação em confinamento e viabilidade econômica em sistema intensivo de produção. Assim, o trabalho foi dividido em dois experimentos durante a recria em pastejo, seguido de terminação em confinamento. O estudo da recria ocorreu durante os 180 dias da estação chuvosa (novembro a abril) e a terminação em confinamento na estação seca (maio a setembro) por dois anos consecutivos: Ano 1 (verão 2014-2015) e Ano 2 (verão 2015-2016). Foram avaliados dois níveis de suplementação: 0% do peso vivo (PV) - grupo controle recebendo sal mineral (SM) e 0,8% do PV grupo recebendo suplementação energética (SE) à base de milho; e duas raças: Nelore (NEL) e ½ sangue Angus x Nelore (ANG) mantidos em pastos de capim-marandu e mombaça. O delineamento experimental foi o de blocos ao acaso, com os tratamentos em arranjo fatorial 2 x 2 (duas raças e dois níveis de suplementação). No experimento de desempenho e lotação animal (Exp.1) foram utilizados 64 machos NEL e 56 ANG, não-castrados, com peso médio inicial de 260 kg, entre 13 e 15 meses e para o experimento de consumo de forragem e fermentação ruminal (Exp. 2) foram utilizados 8 machos Nelore, castrados, com peso médio inicial de 380 kg, 26 meses, durante março a abril. Os animais foram distribuídos em 4 lotes. Durante a terminação em confinamento os tratamentos foram as duas estratégias de suplementação adotadas durante a recria e duas raças. Foram utilizados 46 machos NEL e 46 ANG, não-castrados, com peso médio inicial de 360 kg, entre 18 e 20 meses de idade, distribuídos em baias coletivas. Nos resultados do Exp. 1, com relação à forragem pré e pós-pastejo não houve efeito da SE (P&gt;0,05) para a disponibilidade de matéria seca total (DMST). Houve efeito da SE para alturas de entrada e saída dos pastos (P&lt;0,01) e teor de PB (P=0,03). Com relação aos animais, houve efeito da SE (P&lt;0,01) para o GMD. Houve um acréscimo de 0,40 kg animal-1 dia-1 para SE (P&lt;0,01). A SE permitiu aumento da lotação animal (P&lt;0,01) e maior produção de carne por área (P&lt;0,01). A SE aumentou o tempo de cocho, diminuiu o tempo de pastejo, consequentemente aumentando o tempo em ócio (P&lt;0,01). No Exp. 2, não houve diferença (P=0,75) para consumo de forragem (CMSf) entre os tratamentos, assim, não foi observado efeito substitutivo em função da SE. A SE aumentou (P&lt;0,01) o consumo total (CMSt). A DMS (digestibidade da matéria seca) foi influenciada pela SE (P&lt;0,01), sem diferença entre espécies forrageiras (P=0,99). Houve efeito de SE e interação tratamento x tempo (P&lt;0,01) para as variáveis pH, N-NH3 e AGCC em função dos tempos de amostragens (horas) após a suplementação. A SE reduziu as concentrações acetato (P&lt;0,01) e não influenciou (P=0,28) a concentração de propionato. No Exp. 3 houve efeito da SE (P&lt;0,01) e da raça (P=0,01) para peso inicial. Houve diferença (P&lt;0,01) para CMS entre SM e SE, sem interação suplementação x raça (P=0,41). O CMS também foi influenciado pela raça (P=0,05), sendo maior nos animais ANG comparado aos NEL. Com relação à eficiência alimentar, houve efeito (P&lt;0,01) da SE. Para o GMD houve interação entre suplementação e raça (P&lt;0,01) e os animais que receberam SM tiveram maior GMD comparado à SE. O desempenho dos animais ANG foram superiores comparados aos animais Nelore, independente do tratamento e tempo de confinamento, foi observado melhor desempenho (P&lt;0,01). A SE reduziu (P&lt;0,01) o tempo de confinamento. Para as características de carcaça houve efeito de SE e da raça (P&lt;0,01) para área de olho de lombo medida por ultrassom (AOLU) e espessura de gordura subcutânea da picanha (EGPU). A SE permitiu um adicional na receita de 14% por cabeça e lucro líquido adicional de R$ 2.749,30 por hectare comparado à SM. A suplementação energética no verão aumenta o ganho de peso, lotação animal e a produção de carne por área evidenciando a limitação da qualidade do pasto tropical em atender as exigências de energia líquida de ganho em animais de alto desempenho. Animais cruzados ½ sangue Angus x Nelore apresentam maior produtividade total de carne. A suplementação com milho moído, como fonte de carboidrato não-fibroso promoveu efeito associativo positivo, aumentou o CMS total sem reduzir o CMS de forragem e alterou os padrões de fermentação ruminal; além disso, resulta em maior peso vivo ao final da recria, o que implica na redução do período ou maior peso de abate na terminação em confinamento durante a estação seca, promovendo aumento da produtividade animal total e lucratividade por hectare em sistemas intensivos de produção, aumentando a rentabilidade total do sistema de produção. / Was objectified with the present study to quantify the effect of energy supplementation on pasture during the period of the waters in Nelore and ½ blood Angus x Nellore bulls during the rearing phase on performance and animal stocking, total meat yield, ingestive behavior, feedlot finishing performance and economical viability in an intensive production system. Thus, the work was divided into two experiments during grazing, followed by finishing in feedlot. The study of the rearing occurred during the 180 days of the rainy season (November to April) and the feedlot finishing in the dry season (May to September) for two consecutive years: Year 1 (summer 2014-2015) and Year 2 (summer 2015- 2016). Two levels of supplementation were evaluated: 0% of live weight (PV) - control group receiving mineral salt (MS) and 0.8% of PV - group receiving energy supplementation (ES) based on maize; And two races: Nellore (NEL) and ½ blood Angus x Nellore (ANG) submitted in marandu and mombaça grass. The experimental design was a randomized block design, with treatments in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement (two breeds and two levels of supplementation). In the performance and stocking experiment (Exp.1), 64 NEL and 56 ANG bulls were used, with an average initial weight of 260 kg, between 13 and 15 months of age, and for the experiment of forage and fermentation consumption 8 steers Nellore, castrated, with initial average weight of 380 kg, 26 months of age, were used during the rainy season (March to April). The animals were distributed in 4 lots. During feedlot finishing treatments were the two supplementation strategies adopted during the breeding season and two breeds. Were used 46 male NEL and 46 not castrated males were used, with initial mean weight of 360 kg, between 18 and 20 months of age, distributed in collective bays. In the results of Exp. 1, in relation to pre-grazing and post-grazing forage, there was no effect of ES (P&gt;0.05) for total dry matter availability (DMST). There was an effect of SE for pasture entry and exit height (P&lt;0.01) and CP content (P=0.03). Regarding the animals, there was an effect of the SE (P&lt;0.01) for the ADG, without SE interaction and race (P = 0.85). There was an increase of 0.40 kg animal-1 day-1 for SE (P&lt;0.01). SE allowed an increase in animal stocking (P&lt;0.01) and higher meat production per area (P&lt;0.01). The ES increased the trough time, reduced grazing time, consequently increasing the time in leisure (P&lt;0.01). In Exp. 2, there was no difference (P=0.75) for forage intake (DMIf) among the treatments, thus, no substitute effect was observed as a function of the SE. The ES increased (P&lt;0.01) the total DMI. No difference was observed for DMIt and DMIf (P=0.42) among forages. Digestibility DM was influenced by ES (P&lt;0.01), with no difference between forage species (P=0.99). There was an effect of SE and treatment x time interaction (P&lt;0.01) for pH, N-NH3 and SCFA as a function of sample times (hours) after supplementation. SE reduced acetate concentrations (P&lt;0.01) and did not influence (P=0.28) the propionate concentration. In Exp. 3 there was effect of ES (P&lt;0.01) and race (P=0.01) for initial weight. There was a difference (P&lt;0.01) for DMI between MS and ES, without supplementation x breed interaction (P=0.41). DMI was also influenced by the breed (P=0.05), being higher in ANG animals compared to NEL. With regard to feed eficiency, there was an effect (P&lt;0.01) of ES. For ADG there was interaction between supplementation and breed (P&lt;0.01) and the animals that received SM had higher ADG compared to ES. ANG animals were superior to Nellore animals, regardless of treatment and feedlot time, better performance (P&lt;0.01) was observed. The SE reduced (P&lt;0.01) the feedlot time. For the carcass traits there was an effect of SE and breed (P&lt;0.01) for the loin eye area measured by ultrasound (LEAU) and subcutaneous fat thickness of the filet steak (SFTFS). ES allowed an additional 14% revenue per head and additional net income of R $ 2,749.30 per hectare compared to MS. Summer energy supplementation increases weight gain, animal stocking and meat production by area, evidencing the limitation of tropical pasture quality in meeting the net energy requirements of gain in high performance animals. Angus x Nellore crossbred animals exhibit higher total meat yield. Supplementation with milled corn as a source of non-fibrous carbohydrate promoted positive associative effect, increased total DMI without reducing forage DMI and altered ruminal fermentation patterns; In addition, it results in a greater live weight at the end of the rearing, which implies in the reduction of the period or greater weight of slaughter in the termination in confinement during the dry season, promoting increase of the total animal productivity and profitability per hectare in intensive systems of production, increasing the total profitability of the production system.

No Brasil, os sistemas de produção em ruminantes são principalmente a base do fornecimento de forragens cultivadas em grandes, medianas ou pequenas extensões do território nacional. A maior parte destas pastagens estão em um avançado estado de degradação por causa de um mal aproveitamento das vantagens que oferecem as gramíneas utilizadas nestes sistemas de produção. Um dos motivos pelos quais muitos estes sistemas ainda não são sustentáveis, é o mal uso ou não uso de suplementos no solo, levando o esgotamento de recursos em el solo muy importantes para o bom desenvolvimento de uma gramínea como o é o nitrogênio e o potássio. Como consequência disto, o desempenho animal, fator crítico nos sistemas de produção pecuário são baixos e o rendimento econômico faz que a empresa produtora de carne e leite bovino não seja rentável. Objetiva-se com este estudo avaliar o efeito a eficiência biológica de doses crescentes de adubação em pastagens de capim-marandu e capimmombaça durante os períodos de verão e outono com 3 tratamentos, e duas repetições. Foram 3 as doses de adubação avaliadas: 1) 50 kg N/ha + 50 kg K2O/ha; 2) 300 kg N/ha + 300 kg K2O/ha e 3) 600 kg N/ha + 600 kg K2O/ha, sobre os seguintes parâmetros: 1) massa de forragem produzida em cada um dos tratamentos no pré-pastejo; 2) Composição morfológica; 3) taxa de lotação; 4) frequência de pastejo; 5) composição químico-bromatológica. Foram utilizados 6 piquetes, cada um de 2 ha (3 de variedade Marandu e 3 de variedade Mombaça), nos quais foram coletadas as informações do trabalho de campo. Adicionalmente, dois piquetes com as mesmas dimensões, cada um, com uma das variedades de capim estudadas foram usados como área de reserva. Todos os piquetes foram divididos em 6 partes iguais e contaram com uma área de lazer de 15x30 metros. 181 novilhas foram utilizadas como agentes desfoliadores em ciclos de pastejo de 5 dias de ocupação e 25 de descanso para o campi-marandu e 7 dias de ocupação e 35 de descanso para o campi-mombaça. No período da seca foi testado o desempenho de 103 novilhas entre prenhes e vazias suplementadas com dietas a base de cana-de açúcar e 4 fontes de proteína (farelo de soja, farelo de soja + uréia, uréia e uréia de liberação lenta). A taxa de lotação tive um efeito linear positivo às doses de N e KCl avaliadas. A qualidade do capim foi pouco influenciada pelos tratamentos. Todos os suplementos usados na época da seca permitiram manter o peso médio e obter um ganho de peso adicional. O uso de adubos nitrogendos e potássicos permite aumentar a eficiência do uso da terra permitindo disponibilizar áreas dedicadas à pecuária para outro tipo de atividades no agronegócio. / In Brazil the ruminant production systems are mainly based on the offer of pastures cultivated in large, medium or small areas of the country. Most of the prairies in these production systems are in an advanced state of degradation due to misuse of the gramineae advantages making them unsustainable. The misuse or non-use of soil supplements leads to the depletion of resources such as nitrogen and potassium highly important for the proper development of grass. As a consequence the animal performance, a critical factor in livestock production systems is low, causing a negative impact on economic efficiency of the meat and milk production enterprise making it not profitable. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect and biological efficiency of increasing doses of fertilizers on Marandu and Mombaça pasture prairies during summer and autumn periods with three treatments in two repetitions. With three fertilizer doses evaluated: 1) 50 Kg of N/ha + 50 Kg of K2O/ha; 2) 300 Kg of N/ha + 300 Kg of K2O/ha and 3) 600 Kg of N/ha + 600 Kg of K2O/ha; on the following parameters: 1) mass of forage produced in each of the treatments on the pre-grazing, 2) morphological composition, 3) livestock rate, 4) frequency of grazing, 5) chemical and bromatological composition. 6 paddocks were used, each one of 2 ha (3 with Marandu variety and 3 Mombaça variety) were field work information was collected. Additionally, two fields with the same dimensions mentioned above, each one with the grass varieties tested were used as a reserve area. All paddocks were divided into 6 equal parts and counted with a rest area of 15 x 30 meters. 181 heifers were used to consume the accumulated pasture in grazing cycles, 5 days of occupation and 25 days off in Marandu pasture prairies and 7 days of occupation and 35 days off for Mombaça pasture prairies. In the drought period the performance of 103 pregnant heifers both pregnant and non-pregnant was evaluated, they were fed with diets supplemented with sugar cane and 4 protein sources (soybean meal; soybean meal+ urea; urea; and slow release urea).Lifestock rate had a positive linear effect on increasing doses of the N and KCl evaluated.. Pasture quality was poorly influenced by the treatments. All supplements used in the dry season allowed maintaining weight and additional weight gain. The use of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers allowed the increase of efficiency of soil and to use areas dedicated to livestock to other activities in the agribusiness.

A stochastic, compartmental Model for Adaptive Livestock Management (MALM) was developed for cow-calf enterprise for Rolling Plains of Texas from an existing model, Simple Ecological Sustainability Simulator (SESS). The model simulates forage and animal production. It runs on a monthly time step. Two stocking strategies, flexible and fixed, were evaluated at seven stocking levels for effects on forage and animal production, range condition, and net ranch income. Evaluation data were obtained from published and unpublished data from Texas A&M Agricultural Experimental Station at Vernon for Throckmorton. The model adequately simulated forage and animal production. Light fixed stocking rates and flexible stocking strategies resulted in cows of median body condition score (BCS) 5, compared to low BCS of 4 under moderate fixed stocking rate, and BCS of 3 under heavy fixed stocking. BCS declined from autumn to early spring and peaked in summer. Cows under light fixed stocking rates and under flexible stocking were heavier (460 kg) compared to those under heavy fixed stocking (439 kg). Replacement rates were lower under light stocking (22 %), compared to flexible (37 %) and heavy stocking (56 %). Calf crops were all above the reported 90 % expected for bred heifers because of the replacement policy. Flexible stocking strategy resulted in higher net income ($19.62 ha-1), compared to fixed light ($5.93 ha-1) or fixed heavy ($-17.35 ha-1) stocking strategies. Coefficient of variation (CV) in net income was highest under heavy stocking (90%) compared to light stocking (60%) and flexible stocking (50%). Maximum net income was obtained between 0.05 AUM·ha-1 and 0.13 AUM·ha-1 when fixed stocking strategy was used but when flexible stocking strategy was used maximum net income was obtained between 0.1 AUM·ha-1 and 0.17 AUM·ha-1. Range condition rapidly declined under fixed heavy stocking, increased under fixed and light flexible stocking, and remained constant under moderate flexible stocking. Heavy fixed stocking decreased range condition rapidly over a 20-year period. MALM was an effective tool to demonstrate effects of different management strategies. The model can function as a strategic or a tactical decision aid. It is concluded that there is potential for this model to assist managers in improving the sustainability of agriculture.

De nos jours, la production agricole est soumise à certaines restrictions avec l'objectif de contrôler limpact environnemental et les volumes de production. Ces restrictions ont entrainé des modifications du niveau d'intensification de la production. En ce qui concerne lélevage des ruminants, le niveau d'intensification est défini par le chargement (animaux/ha) et la fertilisation minérale (kg/ha). La réforme de la Politique Agricole Commune (PAC) en 1992 a instauré des « méthodes de production agricole compatibles avec les exigences de la protection de l'environnement ainsi que l'entretien de l'espace naturel » (Règlement (CEE) N° 2078/92 du Conseil du 30 juin 1992, J.O.C.E. N°L 215 du 30/7/92 ; MRW, 1997). La réduction du niveau d'intensification de la production se trouvait parmi ces mesures. En élevage viandeux, elle était encouragée par l'octroi de primes aux éleveurs ne dépassant pas un seuil de chargement de 2 UGB/ha. Ces primes permettaient de compenser la perte de production due à la réduction du niveau dintensification. De plus, des primes à l'extensification pouvaient être obtenues pour les chargements inférieurs à 1,4 UGB/ha. Ces mesures, conjointement au système des quotas, ont permis de maîtriser aussi le volume de la production à grande échelle. Actuellement, suite au principe du découplage décidé lors de la réforme à mi parcours de lAgenda 2000 en juin 2003 et qui correspond aux dernières réformes de la PAC, loctroi de primes nest plus lié au volume des productions, mais bien à la surface. Chaque exploitant doit disposer de « droits » quil doit activer en justifiant les superficies correspondantes. Ces droits sont calculés sur base des superficies et des animaux qui ont donné lieu à un paiement daides directes au cours des années de références 2000, 2001 et 2002. Une fois les droits justifiés et un ensemble de conditions appelées « conditionnalité », liées à lenvironnement (Directive Nitrate), à la sécurité alimentaire et au bien-être des animaux, respectés, lexploitant pourra obtenir le «paiement unique». Les Etats Membres peuvent choisir de découpler certaines productions comme cest le cas pour les vaches allaitantes en Belgique. De plus, les règlements liés à la « Directive Nitrate » ont permis de mieux prendre en compte les effluents délevage et ont provoqué une diminution de la fertilisation azotée susceptible de diminuer la production, lazote étant le premier minéral limitant pour la croissance végétale. Cependant, dans les prairies pâturées, on constate souvent un bilan azoté positif. Lazote en excès est susceptible de sortir du système en étant lessivé sous forme de nitrate avec un risque de pollution environementale. La réduction de l'intensification de la production obtenue soit par une réduction de la fertilisation azotée soit par la réduction du chargement ou les deux facteurs conjugués, peut provoquer une diminution des déjections déposées sur les parcelles et une réduction du bilan azoté. On peut ainsi obtenir une réduction de la pollution des eaux (notamment par les nitrates) ainsi que les émissions des composants azotés volatils (ammoniac et oxyde nitreux). Les résultats dune série d'essais menés pendant six années consécutives sur des prairies pâturées par les principaux types de spéculation bovine, la vache allaitante, la vache laitière et le taurillon, sont présentés et discutés dans cette thèse. Le fil conducteur des essais a été un protocole semblable dans ces trois spéculations. Ce protocole visait à comparer d'une part, la réduction de 33% de la fertilisation azotée sans réduction du chargement et d'autre part, le rapport entre ces deux systèmes et un système sans apport d'azote minéral. Les paramètres étudiés ont été les performances zootechniques, phytotechniques, le bilan azoté et, pour les spéculations des vaches laitières et des taurillons, les reliquats azotés dans le sol. En plus, dans la spéculation "taurillon", les trois lots soumis au pâturage ont été comparés à un lot engraissé en stabulation.

A stochastic, compartmental Model for Adaptive Livestock Management (MALM) was developed for cow-calf enterprise for Rolling Plains of Texas from an existing model, Simple Ecological Sustainability Simulator (SESS). The model simulates forage and animal production. It runs on a monthly time step. Two stocking strategies, flexible and fixed, were evaluated at seven stocking levels for effects on forage and animal production, range condition, and net ranch income. Evaluation data were obtained from published and unpublished data from Texas A&M Agricultural Experimental Station at Vernon for Throckmorton. The model adequately simulated forage and animal production. Light fixed stocking rates and flexible stocking strategies resulted in cows of median body condition score (BCS) 5, compared to low BCS of 4 under moderate fixed stocking rate, and BCS of 3 under heavy fixed stocking. BCS declined from autumn to early spring and peaked in summer. Cows under light fixed stocking rates and under flexible stocking were heavier (460 kg) compared to those under heavy fixed stocking (439 kg). Replacement rates were lower under light stocking (22 %), compared to flexible (37 %) and heavy stocking (56 %). Calf crops were all above the reported 90 % expected for bred heifers because of the replacement policy. Flexible stocking strategy resulted in higher net income ($19.62 ha-1), compared to fixed light ($5.93 ha-1) or fixed heavy ($-17.35 ha-1) stocking strategies. Coefficient of variation (CV) in net income was highest under heavy stocking (90%) compared to light stocking (60%) and flexible stocking (50%). Maximum net income was obtained between 0.05 AUM·ha-1 and 0.13 AUM·ha-1 when fixed stocking strategy was used but when flexible stocking strategy was used maximum net income was obtained between 0.1 AUM·ha-1 and 0.17 AUM·ha-1. Range condition rapidly declined under fixed heavy stocking, increased under fixed and light flexible stocking, and remained constant under moderate flexible stocking. Heavy fixed stocking decreased range condition rapidly over a 20-year period. MALM was an effective tool to demonstrate effects of different management strategies. The model can function as a strategic or a tactical decision aid. It is concluded that there is potential for this model to assist managers in improving the sustainability of agriculture.

The impact of undesirable plant communities (Cymbopogon afronardus and woody species dominated by Acacia species) on livestock carrying capacity and performance was investigated on 15 farms in an Acacia/Cymbopogon dominated pastoral system of south-western Uganda. Species prevalence based on basal cover for grasses, frequency for forbs and effective canopy cover for trees/shrubs were determined on farms. The PHYGROW model was used to predict forage productivity for computation of carrying capacity. The NIRS/NUTBAL nutritional management system was used to determine cattle dietary CP and DOM through fecal scans and to estimate animal performance. Cymbopogon afronardus had a prevalence of 10.29% among the grasses while Acacia gerrardii (34.37%) and Acacia hockii (33.66%) were the most prevalent woody species. Forage productivity differed significantly among the farms with a mean long-term annual forage yield of 4560(SE+41) kg/ha. Farms infested with Cymbopogon and woody species produced the least amount of forage and therefore had the lowest carrying capacities (0.38 -0.39 AU/ha) while improved farms had comparatively higher forage yields with higher carrying capacities (0.49 - 0.52 AU/ha). A mean carrying capacity for the system was estimated at 0.44 AU/ha using a 25% harvest efficiency for ANPP. All the farms were overstocked, on average by 3.2 times. Livestock BCS, diet CP and DOM were significantly different (P<0.0001) among the different farm types. BCS were highest on improved farms and lowest on Cymbopogon infested farms while dietary CP and DOM values were lowest on improved farms and highest on farms with a high woody component. Farms with a relatively high woody component exhibited intermediate BCS despite the high dietary CP values. Cattle on Cymbopogon infested farms had consistently lower body weights over the months although there were no significant differences in daily live weight gains among farms. Recommendations included need for research into appropriate control measures for both Cymbopogon afronardus and woody species, farmer sensitization about overstocking, research to improve forage quality on improved farms and need for feed supplementation for improved breeds on improved farms. Integration of NIRS/NUTBAL and PHYGROW models into the research and management systems was desirable. The observed increase in Sporobolus spp. required investigation.