Cette thèse fait partie d’un programme de recherche international (IRG Cognac). Lancé par le motoriste SNECMA (groupe SAFRAN), ce projet regroupe l’ENS Cachan, UnB, ENSMA, CNRS, Snecma, Turbomeca et Messier Bugatti Dowti, et se concentre sur l’effet du gradient des contraintes sur endommagement par fretting fatigue. Le fretting-fatigue se réfère au processus d’endommagement localisés en bord de fuite entre deux corps en contact soumis à un chargement de fatigue. La maitrise de ce phénomène est d’une importance cruciale dans la détermination des durées de vie des disques de turbine. En bord de contact, le champ de contrainte hérité des forces de contact est maximal à la surface mais présente un fort gradient en s’éloignant du contact.Il a été montré dans cette thèse que pour l’alliage Ti-6AL-4V, les approches locales, basés sur le niveau de contrainte au points critiques ne sont pas applicable dans ces conditions. Une approche non locale, s’appuyant sur la théorie de la distance critique a donc été utilisée. En effet, des fissures courtes initiées au point critique peuvent propager jusqu’à rupture ou peuvent s’arrêter si la diminution des contraintes est suffisamment sévère. Une seconde difficulté réside dans la nature multiaxial et localement non proportionnel du chargement. Le fretting fatigue est généralement créé par la superposition d’un chargement de fatigue cyclique, d’une force normale à la surface souvent considérée constante, et d’une force cyclique tangentiel à la surface mais dont la fréquence peut être différente de celle de la fatigue.Les résultats des essais réalisés ont mis en évidence l’effet du gradient des contraintes sur la fissuration et ont étaient utilisés pour évaluer le potentiel de diffèrent critères pour le dimensionnement en fatigue des structures. La simulation du phénomène a en effet été réalisé en utilisant différente approches. La première s’appuie sur la Théorie de la distance critique et utilise un critère multiaxial. La seconde utilise l’amplitude du facteur d’intensité des contraintes, ΔK, pour prédire l’arrêt des fissures courtes. Finalement un récent modèle construit comme un critère de plasticité en pointe de fissure a été appliqué au problème de fretting fatigue. Ce critère a pour particularité de prendre en compte la contrainte T dans le développement asymptotique en pointe de fissure. / This thesis is part of an international research program (IRG Cognac) initiated by the engine manufacturer SNECMA (SAFRAN group) involving ENS Cachan, UnB, ENSMA, CNRS, Snecma, Turbomeca et Messier Bugatti Dowty. The thesis focuses on the effect of a stress gradient in fretting fatigue. Fretting-fatigue refers to the damage process localized at the frontier of the contact between two contacting bodies subjected to fatigue loadings. The prediction of this phenomenon is of major importance in determining, for instance, the lifetime of fan's disc. In the vicinity of the contact front, the stress field inherited from the contact loads is maximal at the surface and displays a strong gradient from the surface. It was shown in this thesis, for a Ti-6AL-4V alloy, that local approaches, based on local stresses at the most critical point, are not appropriate to predict fretting fatigue lives. As a matter of fact, short cracks initiated at the most critical point may stop if the stress decay from the surface is strong enough or may continue their growth, up to the failure of the component, if the stress gradient from the surface is not string enough. A second difficulty is the multiaxial and non-proportional nature of the loading conditions. Fatigue-fretting stems from the combination of loads that have neither the same spatial distribution nor the same time-dependency. In fretting-fatigue tests, three loading components are considered, the fatigue loading of the component (cyclic), the normal part (assumed to be constant) and the in-plane part (cyclic) of the loads between the two contacting components. To quantify the effect of the stress gradient, tests were carried out on a fatigue testing contact bench developed at the University of Brasilia, with experimental conditions ensuring different stress gradient while keeping the maximal stress the same. Damage mechanisms were studied using post-mortem analysis and optical microscopy on the contact elements tested. The prediction of the fretting fatigue life was done using different approaches. The first one is based on the Critical Distance Method and a fatigue criterion. The second is based on a K-based short crack arrest method. Finally, a new criterion was proposed. This method considers a generalized von Mises yield criterion for the crack tip region and accounts for the T-stresses in the asymptotic LEFM development.

Cross-ply composite laminates can develop very high density of transverse cracks in the 90-layer under severe thermal and mechanical loading conditions. At such high crack densities, two adjacent cracks start to interact, and a stress gradient is created in the region between these cracks. Due to the presence of high stress gradients, thickness averaging of longitudinal stress becomes obsolete. Thus, a detailed analysis of stress state along the thickness direction becomes necessary to study growth conditions of fiber sized microcracks initiated at the interface between 0-layer and 90-layer. Stress analysis at various crack densities is carried out in this project using finite element analysis or FEM as the main tool. This analysis is coupled with strain energy release rate (ERR) studies for a microcrack which grows in transverse direction from one interface to the other. The growth of this microcrack is found to be strongly influenced by the stress gradients and a presence of compressive stresses along midplane under tensile loading conditions at high crack densities.

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’étudier l’évolution de la fissure sous les effets de plasticité et du champ de contrainte non-uniforme à l’aide du modèle de zone cohésive. Dans un premier temps, l’évolution de la fissure au sein du matériau élastoplastique est explorée dans le cadre de l’approche variationnelle. Les solutions sont explicitées dans le cas d’une barre 1D sous traction simple grâce aux conditions de stabilité locale d’énergie au premier ordre et au second ordre. Cette étude nous permet de mettre en lumière l’effet de la plasticité sur le comportementadoucissant du matériau dès que la fissure cohésive apparaît. En effet, la réponse globale de la barre sous déplacement imposé est stable seulement si la longueur de la barre est inférieure à une longueur critique. Cette dernière est démontrée indépendante du module d’écrouissage plastique mais dépend du module Young et de la dérivée seconde de la densité d’énergie de fissure. Les formulations énergétiques peuvent être généralisées pour la structure 3D. Dans ce cas, les critères de plasticité et de cohésif deviennent les courbes dans le plan des contraintes de Mohr. La comparaison des courbes nous permet d’étudier la nucléation de fissure cohésive au sein du domaine plastifié. Dans un deuxième temps, les effets de la non-uniformité du champ de contrainte sur la nucléation de la fissure au sein de la structure élastique sont mis en évidence. On construit la solution analytique en utilisant la technique à deux échelles et l’analyse complexe. L’évolution de la fissure purement cohésive et partiellement non-cohésive est contrôlée par le gradient du champ de contrainte lié à une longueur caractéristique. L’utilisation des différentes lois cohésives dans le problème est explorée. La sensibilité de la solution à la taille du défaut préexistant est également étudiée. Finalement, des résultats analytiques sont validés par les simulations numériques et le modèle de zone cohésive en mode mixte est implémenté dans Code_Aster. / The aims of this work is to study the cracks evolution under plasticity and nonuniform stress field effects by using cohesive zone model. Firstly, basing on the variational approach, the crack evolution in the elastoplastic material is investigated. The solutions for 1D beam under simple tension is expressed explicitly through the first and the second orders stability conditions of energy. This study shows us the plasticity effects on the material softening behavior as soon as crack appears. In fact, the global solution of the beam under described displacement is stable only if the beam length is lower than a characteristic length. This length is independent of plasticity hardening module but depends on Young modulus and on the second derivative of crack energy density. The energy formulations can be generalized for 3D structure. In this case, the plasticity and cohesive criteria become two curves in Mohr’s stresses plane. The comparison between theses curves allows us to consider the crack nucleation in the plastified domain. Secondly, the non-uniform stress field effects on the crack nucleation in the elastic material is highlighted. The analytical solution is established by using two-scales techniqueand complex analysis. The evolution of fully cohesive crack and partially non-cohesive crack is controlled by the stress gradient, which is related to a characteristic length. Different cohesive laws are used in our study. The sensitivity of solution to preexisting imperfection size is also explored. Finally, analytical results are validated by numerical simulations and the cohesive zone model in mixed mode is implemented in Code_Aster.

Positive biotic interactions such as mutualism, commensalism and facilitation are ubiquitous in nature, but historically have received considerably less research attention than negative interactions such as competition, predation and parasitism. The paucity of research on positive interactions is particularly evident in stream ecosystems and in vertebrate communities. Stream fishes clearly provide an ideal system for advancing research on positive interactions. Many minnows (Cyprinidae) of eastern North America engage in a potentially mutualistic reproductive interaction known as nest association, in which individuals of one species (nest associates) spawn in nests constructed by host species. In nest association, hosts provide unsilted gravel substrate for spawning nest associates, and increased parental care to associate broods. High associate: host egg ratios can create a dilution effect, reducing the probability that host eggs will be preyed upon by egg predators. Nest associative interactions are common, but are relatively understudied compared to other interactions among stream fishes. The goals of this study were to apply general ecological models to this novel system to (a) gain new insight into the mechanisms structuring nest associative stream fish communities, and (b) to use inference from stream fish communities to potentially expand and improve the general ecological models. These goals required completion of three objectives, including (1) examining the influence of abiotic and biotic contexts on reproductive behavior and fitness outcomes between a cyprinid host and associate, using the biological markets model to generate predictions; (2) examining the utility of the nest web framework (previously only used for cavity nesting vertebrate communities) and the stress gradient hypothesis (previously applied almost exclusively to plant communities) for predicting which associate species spawn on nests built by various nest building species, and the consequences of these choices, respectively; and (3) using two-species occupancy modeling to determine the relative influence of biotic interactions and habitat covariates on the co-occurrence of a host and two nest associates. To accomplish these goals, I conducted a large-scale experiment to manipulate presence of mutualists (Nocomis leptocephalus, host; Chrosomus oreas, associate), egg predators (biotic context) and habitat quality (abiotic context). I conducted behavioral nest observations and conducted repeated stream fish stream fish community surveys to collect demographic data. I constructed a nest web from observational data, and implemented structural equation modeling through an information-theoretic framework to identify nest web plausibility across a large spatial extent. I tested some predictions of the stress gradient hypothesis by regressing juveniles-per-nest and a metric of cyprinid community structure on a composite measure of physical stress (scaled gradients of catchment-scale agricultural land use and catchment area). I used two-species occupancy modeling to model co-occurrence of N. leptocephalus hosts and two associates, C. oreas and Clinostomus funduloides, and used an information-theoretic framework to compare hypotheses representing the importance of biotic interactions, habitat covariates or both at determining species co-occurrence. Results corroborated some (but not all) model predictions, and identified room for improvement in each of the general models. Nest associative spawning by C. oreas was not context dependent; C. oreas did not spawn in the absence of a reproductively active male N. leptocephalus at any treatment level. However, the net fitness outcome of host and associate species was mutualistic, and the interaction outcome switched from commensalistic to mutualistic with abiotic context. N. leptocephalus reproductive success was improved by C. oreas presence in less-silted habitats, but not in heavily-silted habitats. This is most likely because broods were subject to predation in both habitat types, but were also negatively affected by siltation in silted habitats. Accordingly, egg dilution by associates was not sufficient to support a mutualistic relationship in less favorable habitats. Results suggest that the biological markets model may be a useful tool for predicting fitness outcomes of nest associative mutualism, but may not be as useful for predicting the behavioral outcomes of obligate mutualisms. Future applications of the biological markets model should carefully consider species traits, specifically the degree to which trading behavior is obligate for participants. Future work with this model will yield more insight by considering highly facultative associates. Nest webs constructed from nest observational data suggested an interaction topology in which strong (nearly-obligate) associates relied most frequently on N. leptocephalus nests, and less frequently on nests constructed by Campostoma anomalum. Weak (facultative) associates were seldom associated with nests constructed by either species, and probably spawned before hosts began nesting activity. Structural equation models corroborated this topology throughout the New River basin, although some less-supported model evidence specified some nest association by weak associates. Juveniles-per-nest of strong associates responded positively to physical stress, while this metric for other cyprinid reproductive groups showed no relationship. Proportional representation of Nocomis and strong associates also increased predictably with physical stress. This study suggests that the nest web framework can be informative to systems outside the ones for which it was developed; future studies may be able to use this framework to better understand the role of habitat-modifying species in communities other than cavity nesting terrestrial vertebrates and nest associative stream fishes. This work extended the nest web framework by (a) modeling the outcomes of interactions instead of the interactions themselves, and (b) by using structural equation modeling to test nest web predictions with an information-theoretic framework. This study also suggests that the stress gradient hypothesis can be useful for understanding interaction dynamics in vertebrate communities; this represents the first direct evidence that this model can be used in vertebrate communities. Further, I demonstrate that the stress gradient hypothesis may be extended to predict community structure. However, more research in a diversity of systems will be needed to determine the extent to which this can be applied. This study provides some of the first evidence of large-scale positive co-occurrence patterns in vertebrates. However, the precise roles of habitat covariates and biotic interactions were species-specific. Occupancy results suggest that co-occurrence between N. leptocephalus and nest associate C. funduloides is driven only by reproductive behavioral interactions. Alternatively, evidence suggests that co-occurrence between N. leptocephalus and C. oreas is driven by both nest association and habitat covariates. That two-species occupancy modeling can be a useful tool for comparing difficult-to-test hypotheses involving biotic interactions at large spatial scales. This study represents the first quantitative, multi-scale treatment of positive interactions in stream ecosystems. This study demonstrates that applying general ecological models to stream fish communities can yield new insights about both the study system and the models themselves. While models of negative interactions, food webs and dispersal have been applied to stream fishes, we stand to gain much ground by also considering positive biotic interactions. In doing so, stream fish ecologists will also be able to contribute to the advancement of general ecology, and thus raise awareness for these understudied ecosystems and taxa. / Ph. D.

The thesis presents a novel computational method for analysing the static and dynamic behaviour of a multi-damaged beam using local and non-local elasticity theories. Most of the lumped damage beam models proposed to date are based on slender beam theory in classical (local) elasticity and are limited by inaccuracies caused by the implicit assumption of the Euler-Bernoulli beam model and by the spring model itself, which simplifies the real beam behaviour around the crack. In addition, size effects and material heterogeneity cannot be taken into account using the classical elasticity theory due to the absence of any microstructural parameter. The proposed work is based on the inhomogeneous Euler-Bernoulli beam theory in which a Dirac's delta function is added to the bending flexibility at the position of each crack: that is, the severer the damage, the larger is the resulting impulsive term. The crack is assumed to be always open, resulting in a linear system (i.e. nonlinear phenomena associated with breathing cracks are not considered). In order to provide an accurate representation of the structure's behaviour, a new multi-cracked beam element including shear effects and rotatory inertia is developed using the flexibility approach for the concentrated damage. The resulting stiffness matrix and load vector terms are evaluated by the unit-displacement method, employing the closed-form solutions for the multi-cracked beam problem. The same deformed shapes are used to derive the consistent mass matrix, also including the rotatory inertia terms. The two-node multi-damaged beam model has been validated through comparison of the results of static and dynamic analyses for two numerical examples against those provided by a commercial finite element code. The proposed model is shown to improve the computational efficiency as well as the accuracy, thanks to the inclusion of both shear deformations and rotatory inertia. The inaccuracy of the spring model, where for example for a rotational spring a finite jump appears on the rotations' profile, has been tackled by the enrichment of the elastic constitutive law with higher order stress and strain gradients. In particular, a new phenomenological approach based upon a convenient form of non-local elasticity beam theory has been presented. This hybrid non-local beam model is able to take into account the distortion on the stress/strain field around the crack as well as to include the microstructure of the material, without introducing any additional crack related parameters. The Laplace's transform method applied to the differential equation of the problem allowed deriving the static closed-form solution for the multi-cracked Euler-Bernoulli beams with hybrid non-local elasticity. The dynamic analysis has been performed using a new computational meshless method, where the equation of motions are discretised by a Galerkin-type approximation, with convenient shape functions able to ensure the same grade of approximation as the beam element for the classical elasticity. The importance of the inclusion of microstructural parameters is addressed and their effects are quantified also in comparison with those obtained using the classical elasticity theory.

Ce travail porte sur l’étude du risque d’amorçage de fissure en fretting/fatigue du contact aubes/disque de soufflante en alliage de titane Ti-6Al-4V d’un turboréacteur civil. De part les vibrations du moteur et le passage du flux d’air, le contact aube/disque est sujet à de microdéplacements: le fretting. Ce problème complexe concerne des zones en contact de faibles dimensions subissant des pressions de contact importantes et des micro-déplacements associées à des structures soumises à des chargements eux-mêmes complexes. Des essais de fretting simple, fretting précontraint et fretting fatigue sont réalisés en vue d’identifier les conditions d’amorçage de fissure pour plusieurs géométries présentant des gradients de contraintes différents. Les résultats expérimentaux mettent en évidence l’effet du gradient de contrainte sur l’amorçage. Ainsi, via des essais présentant une gamme étendue de gradient, il a été confirmé que les gradients de contraintes retardent l’initiation de fissure. Une approche non-locale couplée à un critère de fatigue multiaxiale et identifiée sur une unique condition expérimentale de fretting simple a permis la prédiction de l’ensemble des résultats expérimentaux. Ainsi, une méthodologie prédictive des durées de vie à amorçage a été proposée. Cette approche numérique intègre la multiaxialité du chargement, l’effet du gradient des contraintes, la réponse élastoplastique de l’interface et les limites de fatigue en traction/compression et torsion alternée du matériau. L’interface aube/disque grenaillée du moteur subit une alternance de sollicitations de faibles amplitudes générant l’amorçage de fissure, et de grandes amplitudes favorisant l’usure des zones en contact. Le phénomène de compétition usure/fissure a alors été étudié via les courbes en cloches (durée de vie en fonction de l’amplitude de déplacement) ainsi que l’influence des contraintes résiduelles de grenaillage. Une première conclusion sur l’effet bénéfique de l’usure a pu être apportée dans le cas d’un matériau sans traitement de surface. Si les contraintes résiduelles de grenaillage permettent d’apporter un gain notable sur les durées de vie pour des sollicitations de glissement partiel, à l’inverse, il a été observé que le matériau avec le traitement de surface de grenaillage présente des durées de vie plus faibles pour des sollicitations favorisant l’usure. À travers d’essais inédits avec un dispositif expérimental à trois vérins, le chargement complexe de l’interface aube/disque du moteur a pu être reproduit à l’échelle du laboratoire. Ainsi, la durabilité globale du contact représentatif de l’interface aube/disque de soufflante a été étudiée. Une synergie des sollicitations oligocycliques et polycycliques à l’interface a été constatée provoquant des phénomènes de réorganisation de contraintes résiduelles et l’accélération des cinétiques d’usure. Cette étude a montré l’importance de prendre en compte les sollicitations polycycliques dans le dimensionnement des structures aubes/disque. Ces sollicitations couplent les aspects de fatigue « fissuration » aux phénomènes de cumul de dommage et de cinétique d’usure des interfaces. / This work aims at studying the crack initiation risk of a blade/disk contact under fretting/fatigue loading. The fan stage of a civil engine is studied and the material used is a titanium alloy: Ti-6Al-4V. This complex issue concerns small contacts which are subjected to high contact pressures and micro-displacements. Thus, a complex multiaxial loading occurs on the structure. Fretting, static stressed fretting and fretting fatigue testing are performed in order to quantify the crack nucleation thresholds. In addition, several geometries which present different stress gradient values are used. The experimental results show a stress gradient effect on the crack initiation. Thus, using a wide range of stress gradient, it has been confirmed that stress gradient delays crack nucleation. A multiaxial fatigue criterion is used to determine the equivalent stress field under the contact. Then, a non-local approach, identified thanks to one fretting experimental condition, is employed in order to consider the stress gradient effect. This approach provides the prediction of the whole experimental results. In this way, a predictive method of the initiation fatigue life has been introduced. This numerical approach takes into account the multiaxial loading, the stress gradient effect, the plastic-elastic behavior of the interface and the fatigue strength limits of the material. The blade/disk contacts of the engine are shot-peened. During the flight, interfaces are subjected to low displacement amplitudes leading to crack initiation. On the other hand, during landing and take-off, contacts are submitted to high displacement amplitudes leading to the interface wear. As a consequence, competition between wear kinetic and nucleation one is studied and “bell curves” are plotted (i.e. fatigue life time versus displacement amplitude).Moreover, the effect of the shot-peening residual stresses on fatigue life time is observed. In case of un-treated material, a beneficial impact on the fatigue life time is observed due to wear process. Compressive residual stresses of shot-peening increase the fatigue life when fretting/fatigue on partial slip regime occurs. Nevertheless, a decrease of the fatigue life time is observed when wear process is activated by the gross slip condition. Finally, the complex loading of the engine blade/disk contact has been reproduced in the laboratory. To achieve this, a new testing, using an experimental machine composed of three hydraulic actuators is developed. Thus, the global life time of the representative interface of the fan stage is studied. Oligocyclic (low frequency) and polycyclic (high frequency) solicitations interact themselves and lead, firstly, to a rearrangement of the residual stresses, and secondly, to an increase of the wear kinetics. This research work highlights the interest to consider the polycyclic loadings to design the blade/disk structure. These solicitations reproduce the “cracking” fatigue phenomenon, the cumulative damages and the wear kinetics of the interface.

Grande parte dos componentes mecânicos e estruturas são solicitados por carregamentos que variam com o tempo e frequentemente falham por fadiga. Neste sentido, é indubitável que o modo de falha por fadiga seja considerado no projeto mecânico de componentes, equipamentos e estruturas sujeitas a carregamentos cíclicos. Os livros de projetos de máquinas ainda são os mais utilizados na indústria como referência teórica e prática ao dimensionamento contra a fadiga de produtos. Entretanto, muitos deles ainda não incluem as últimas descobertas e metodologias mais modernas para o cálculo de durabilidade de estruturas. Adicionalmente, de uma maneira geral, grande parte dos livros especializados em fadiga também não trazem informações detalhadas sobre a previsão de vida em fadiga sob a ótica do projeto mecânico, como a análise utilizando critérios de Fadiga Multiaxial e a análise de fadiga baseada em Elementos Finitos (FE-Based Fatigue Analysis). Baseado neste cenário, este trabalho tem o objetivo de propor um procedimento para avaliar a vida em fadiga de componentes e estruturas reunindo os métodos mais recentes utilizados nesta área. Dentre os vários assuntos incluídos no procedimento proposto, destacam-se: as importantes contribuições propostas pelo Conselho Alemão de Pesquisa em Engenharia (FKM-Guideline); a utilização de Análise por Elementos Finitos (FEA) na previsão de vida em fadiga; o cálculo do fator de tensão média utilizando pseudo tensões provenientes de FEA; a contabilização do efeito de entalhe em componentes com geometria complexa utilizando o Método do Gradiente de Tensão Relativo em conjunto com FEA, que pode ser aplicado tanto em carregamento uniaxial quanto em carregamento multiaxial; a contabilização do dano por fadiga em carregamento multiaxial de amplitude variável; a densidade da malha de elementos finitos adequada para utilizar em fadiga computacional; e a aplicação da teoria e dos critérios de Fadiga Multiaxial, principalmente em FE-Based Fatigue Analyses, cuja utilização é imprescindível em estruturas sujeitas a tensões cíclicas em mais de uma direção (x,y,z). / Most of mechanical components and structures are subjected to time varying loading and therefore often present fatigue failure. Therefore, it is essential to consider the fatigue failure mode in the project of components, machines and structures under cyclic loading. Design of Machine Elements books are still the most used in industry as theoretical and practical reference for designing products against fatigue. However, many of them still do not include the latest findings and methodologies used in fatigue life assessment of structures. Additionally, overall, most of the specialized fatigue books also do not include detailed information about fatigue life assessment in a mechanical project view, as the fatigue analysis using Multiaxial Fatigue criteria and the fatigue life prediction using the Finite Element Method (FE-Based Fatigue Analysis). Based on this fact, this thesis proposes a procedure for predicting component and structures fatigue life, gathering together the most recent methods used in the fatigue area. Among the several subjects included in this procedure, we can highlight: the important contributions of the German Engineering Research Council (FKM-Guideline); the use of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) in the fatigue life assessment; the calculation of the mean stress factor using the pseudo stresses from FEA; the computation of the notch eect in geometrically complex components using the Relative Stress Gradient Method in conjunction with FEA, method which can be applied both in uniaxial loading and multiaxial loading; the estimation of the fatigue damage in structures under variable amplitude multiaxial fatigue loading; the selection of an adequate Finite Element mesh density to use in computational fatigue; and the aplication of the Multiaxial Fatigue theory and criteria, specially in FE-Based Fatigue Analyses, of which use is essential in structures under ciclic stresses in 2 or 3 directions (x,y,z).

Les films de ZrO2 pur sont déposés par MOCVD (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition) en variant de nombreux paramètres du processus. L’influence des conditions de dépôt sur l’évolution de la microstructure (morphologies, structure cristalline/phase, texture et contrainte résiduelle) a été étudiée et clarifiée. Par des analyses approfondies des résultats expérimentaux, trois mécanismes typiques de croissance de dépôt de ZrO2 ont été proposées. Les contraintes de croissance de compression sont en relation directe avec la diffusion atomique et la quantité d’espèces piégées dans les films. La formation de la texture cristallographique est complexe et deux types de textures ont été analysées dans la phase tétragonale : la texture de fibre {1 1 0}t est contribuée par l’effet superplastique des nano-cristallites de ZrO2 et par la contrainte de croissance de compression ; tandis que la morphologie en facette est due à la croissance concurrentielle de différents plans cristallographiques. La stabilisation de la phase tétragonale de ZrO2 a été analysée et discutée. En plus de la taille critique des cristallites, la stabilisation de la phase tétragonale est favorisée par deux autres mécanismes : la grande quantité des défauts cristallins et la morphologie des cristallites. / Pure ZrO2 films were deposited by MOCVD (Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition) by varying the deposition parameters over large range. The influence of deposition conditions on the evolution of the microstructure (morphology, crystal structure / phase, texture and residual stress) was studied and clarified. Through careful study and analysis of experimental results, three typical mechanisms of deposition of ZrO2 have been proposed. The compressive growth stresses are directly related to atomic diffusion and the trapped-in effects during deposition. The formation of crystallographic texture is complex and two types of textures were analyzed in the tetragonal phase: the fiber texture {1 1 0}t is supposed to be the result of the effect of superplastic of ZrO2 nano-crystallites and the compressive growth stress, while the facet morphology (the {0 1 1}t fiber) is due to the competitive growth of different crystallographic planes. The stabilization of the tetragonal phase of ZrO2 was analyzed and discussed. In addition to the critical size of crystallites, the stabilization of the tetragonal phase can be favored by two mechanisms: the large amount of crystal defects and morphology of crystallites.

Grande parte dos componentes mecânicos e estruturas são solicitados por carregamentos que variam com o tempo e frequentemente falham por fadiga. Neste sentido, é indubitável que o modo de falha por fadiga seja considerado no projeto mecânico de componentes, equipamentos e estruturas sujeitas a carregamentos cíclicos. Os livros de projetos de máquinas ainda são os mais utilizados na indústria como referência teórica e prática ao dimensionamento contra a fadiga de produtos. Entretanto, muitos deles ainda não incluem as últimas descobertas e metodologias mais modernas para o cálculo de durabilidade de estruturas. Adicionalmente, de uma maneira geral, grande parte dos livros especializados em fadiga também não trazem informações detalhadas sobre a previsão de vida em fadiga sob a ótica do projeto mecânico, como a análise utilizando critérios de Fadiga Multiaxial e a análise de fadiga baseada em Elementos Finitos (FE-Based Fatigue Analysis). Baseado neste cenário, este trabalho tem o objetivo de propor um procedimento para avaliar a vida em fadiga de componentes e estruturas reunindo os métodos mais recentes utilizados nesta área. Dentre os vários assuntos incluídos no procedimento proposto, destacam-se: as importantes contribuições propostas pelo Conselho Alemão de Pesquisa em Engenharia (FKM-Guideline); a utilização de Análise por Elementos Finitos (FEA) na previsão de vida em fadiga; o cálculo do fator de tensão média utilizando pseudo tensões provenientes de FEA; a contabilização do efeito de entalhe em componentes com geometria complexa utilizando o Método do Gradiente de Tensão Relativo em conjunto com FEA, que pode ser aplicado tanto em carregamento uniaxial quanto em carregamento multiaxial; a contabilização do dano por fadiga em carregamento multiaxial de amplitude variável; a densidade da malha de elementos finitos adequada para utilizar em fadiga computacional; e a aplicação da teoria e dos critérios de Fadiga Multiaxial, principalmente em FE-Based Fatigue Analyses, cuja utilização é imprescindível em estruturas sujeitas a tensões cíclicas em mais de uma direção (x,y,z). / Most of mechanical components and structures are subjected to time varying loading and therefore often present fatigue failure. Therefore, it is essential to consider the fatigue failure mode in the project of components, machines and structures under cyclic loading. Design of Machine Elements books are still the most used in industry as theoretical and practical reference for designing products against fatigue. However, many of them still do not include the latest findings and methodologies used in fatigue life assessment of structures. Additionally, overall, most of the specialized fatigue books also do not include detailed information about fatigue life assessment in a mechanical project view, as the fatigue analysis using Multiaxial Fatigue criteria and the fatigue life prediction using the Finite Element Method (FE-Based Fatigue Analysis). Based on this fact, this thesis proposes a procedure for predicting component and structures fatigue life, gathering together the most recent methods used in the fatigue area. Among the several subjects included in this procedure, we can highlight: the important contributions of the German Engineering Research Council (FKM-Guideline); the use of Finite Element Analysis (FEA) in the fatigue life assessment; the calculation of the mean stress factor using the pseudo stresses from FEA; the computation of the notch eect in geometrically complex components using the Relative Stress Gradient Method in conjunction with FEA, method which can be applied both in uniaxial loading and multiaxial loading; the estimation of the fatigue damage in structures under variable amplitude multiaxial fatigue loading; the selection of an adequate Finite Element mesh density to use in computational fatigue; and the aplication of the Multiaxial Fatigue theory and criteria, specially in FE-Based Fatigue Analyses, of which use is essential in structures under ciclic stresses in 2 or 3 directions (x,y,z).

[pt] O projeto mecânico de componentes estruturais para vidas longas à fadiga requer limites de fadiga confiáveis. Porém, a previsão do limite de fadiga ainda apresenta alguns desafios, especialmente por causa dos inevitáveis entalhes e pela presença de pequenos defeitos intrínsecos do material que podem ser considerados como microtrincas. Os entalhes atuam como concentradores de tensão e microtrincas podem ser geradas na ponta destes. Tais microtrincas (geradas ou intrínsecas) podem propagar até provocar a falha do componente ou parar de propagar depois de crescer uma pequena distância e se tornarem não-propagantes, dependendo do nível de carga e do gradiente de tensão à frente do entalhe. Modelos empíricos e teóricos têm sido propostos para fazer previsão do limite de fadiga de componentes entalhados. Entre os teóricos, o chamado modelo do Gradiente de Tensão (GT), que utiliza conceitos da mecânica da fratura linear elástica, apresenta-se como um modelo promissor. No entanto, a validação experimental das previsões deste modelo ainda não tem sido completamente realizada. Neste contexto, corpos de prova tipo C(T) do aço 1020 e com vários valores do raio da ponta do entalhe foram testados sob controle de amplitude de carga constante, frequência de 40 Hz e razão de tensão R igual a 0.1 para avaliar o limite de fadiga através de testes acelerados com cargas tipo step up durante blocos de 3.10 elevado a sexta potência ciclos. O limite de fadiga determinado experimentalmente foi comparado com as previsões do modelo GT e do Método do Ponto, um dos métodos da chamada Teoria da Distância Crítica (TDC). No modelo GT foram considerados três métodos: GTc-p, GTs-e e GTquebra, segundo o método usado para achar o fator geométrico para determinar o fator de intensidade de tensão. As previsões dos modelos GTc-p, GTquebra e TDC são similares no caso de entalhes com raios de ponta grandes, e bem próximas do limite de fadiga medido experimentalmente, enquanto que eles são não-conservativos no caso de entalhes afiados (raios de ponta pequenos). As previsões do modelo GTs-e foram conservativas para entalhes afiados e não afiados. Devido a que os dois modelos são baseados em conceitos lineares elásticos, foi demonstrado que uma análise elástica apresenta limitações para modelar o comportamento à fadiga em entalhes afiados, pois nesses casos a tensão local no ponto crítico pode exceder o limite de escoamento do material. Alem disso, o modelo GT também permite estimar o tamanho da maior trinca curta não-propagante (TCNP) associada ao limite de fadiga. Tais TCNP foram monitoradas nas faces do C(T) através de técnicas não-destrutivas tais como microscopia óptica, correlação digital de imagens e tomografia; enquanto que as TCNP internas foram detectadas usando a técnica destrutiva da metalografia. Os tamanhos das TCNP detectadas foram muito menores do que as estimadas pelo modelo GT, dificultando ainda mais o problema de detecção daquelas trincas. / [en] The mechanical design of structural components for high cycle fatigue applications needs reliable fatigue limits. However, mainly because of notches and the unavoidable presence of small defects, such a task still presents some challenges. Notches cause a stress concentration effect that can initiate short cracks at their tips, but such short cracks may propagate or become non-propagating, depending not only on the load level, but on the stress gradient ahead of the notch tip as well. Notch-like defects, such as scratches, pores, and inclusions, behave in the same way. There are empirical and theoretical models to predict the fatigue limit of notched components. The latter includes the so-called Stress Gradient (SG) model, based on linear elastic fracture mechanics concepts and using the El Haddad-Topper-Smith (ETS) characteristic size aR, as a promissory approach. However, there is a lack of experimental data verifying their fatigue limit predictions. In this context, C(T)-like notched specimens of SAE 1020 steel with several notch root radii were tested under constant load amplitude control at 40 Hz and a stress ratio R equal 0.1, to evaluate their fatigue limit through accelerated tests involving step loading procedures with blocks of 3.10 to sixth power cycles. The experimental fatigue limit was compared with values predicted by SG model, following three approaches: SGc-p, SGs-e, and SGquebra, according to the determination of the geometric factor of the stress concentration factor; and with an alternative prediction by the Point Method based on the theory of critical-distance (TCD). SGc-p, SGquebra and TCD model predictions are almost coincident for blunt notches and they present a good agreement with experimental results, but they are non-conservatives in the case of sharp notches; while SGc-p predictions are conservative for both blunt and sharp notches. Since both models are based on linear elastic concepts, it was demonstrated that an elastic analysis presents limitations to model the behavior of short cracks emanating from sharp notches, due to the local stress at the critical point can exceed the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, according to SG model, the fatigue limit is related to the presence of non-propagating short cracks (NPSC). Such surface NPSCs on the face of the specimens were monitored by non-destructive techniques including optical microscopy, digital image correlation (DIC) and micro-computed tomography; whereas subsurface NPSCs were detected through destructive metallographic technique. The sizes of the detected NPSCs were much smaller than those values predicted by SG model, which in turn makes the detection of these cracks a more complex problem.