The character of the stutterer in three works of German literature is the focus of this master’s thesis, Der Stotterer als Sündenbock: Eine marginalisierte Figur in drei deutschen Prosawerken. Two novels and one story were chosen for this project: Alfred Döblin’s Berlin Alexanderplatz. Die Geschichte von Franz Biberkopf, published in 1929; Gottesdiener by Petra Morsbach, published in 2004; and “Der Stotterer” by Lutz Seiler, published in 2009. These works were chosen because they are among the few that portray stuttering characters in major, rather than in peripheral, roles. The main goal of the thesis is to examine the characteristics of stuttering and the portrayal of the three stutterers. On the basis of four categories concerning the phenomenon of stuttering, a detailed analysis of these three characters is provided. These categories examine the symptomatology of stuttering itself and the contentious explanations of its origins. The effects of stuttering on the social-psychological level are also of great interest. Further, the analysis will examine the theme of healing, and the effects on the narrative of the stutterers’ self-aware reflection on their condition, or lack of such reflection. On a second interpretative level, two theoretical works are applied to the characteristics of the stutterers. The first is the theory and definition of ‘stigma’ by American sociologist Erving Goffman in his work Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963). This will be used to identify characteristics that mark the stutterer in a negative way. The second theoretical work is Der Sündenbock (Le Bouc émissaire; 1988), written by the French historian and critic René Girard. On the basis of Girard’s work, the hypothesis is put forward that all three stutterers show characteristics of the scapegoat. The interpretations of the stutterers as scapegoats are thus based on the stigma (in Goffman’s terms) and criteria of victims or sacrifices (in Girard’s terms). Furthermore, these two theoretical works are connected by the notion that differences and deviations are important for the maintenance of norms in society. One of the results is that there seems to be an increasing tendency to describe the attribute of stuttering as a ‘normal’ attribute. The stutterer nonetheless remains a marginalized character in all three literary texts. Moreover, all three of the analyzed stutterers can be shown to demonstrate different aspects of the scapegoat complex, thus making the maintenance of normal society dependent upon their sacrifice.

The present study investigated phonological encoding skills in children who stutter (CWS). Participants were 4 CWS (M=10;9years) and 4 children who do no stutter (CNS) (M=12;1 years) The groups were compared in phoneme monitoring and rhyme monitoring, with a tone monitoring task providing a neutral baseline for comparison. Both the phoneme monitoring and rhyme monitoring tasks were performed during silent picture naming. Results revealed that both groups were faster and more accurate when monitoring the rhyme than when monitoring the phoneme. Results further indicated that the children who stutter were significantly slower in both conditions. These findings suggest that there may be a later transition to incremental processing in both typically developing children and those who stutter and that children who stutter may be even less efficient than children who do not stutter. However, these results may have been compromised by a few key variables. / text

Purpose: The aim of this research was to examine the relationship between stuttering and bilingualism to hemispheric asymmetry for the processing and production of language. Methods: A total of 80 native speakers of German were recruited for the study, ranging in age from 15 to 58 years. Out of those 80 participants, 40 participants were also proficient speakers of English as a second language (L2). The participants were organised into four speaker groups (20 per group) according to language ability and speech status, consisting of monolinguals who stutter (MWS), monolinguals who do not stutter (MWNS), bilinguals who stutter (BWS), and bilinguals who do not stutter (BWNS). Each of the four groups comprised 12 males and 8 females. All participants completed a battery of behavioural assessments measuring functional cerebral hemispheric asymmetry during language processing and production. The behavioural tests included (1) a dichotic listening paradigm, (2) a visual hemifield paradigm, and (3) a dual-task paradigm. Results: Overall, the results showed no significant differences in language lateralisation between participant groups on the three behavioural tests. However group differences were identified in regard to executive functions on the visual hemifield and dual-task paradigms. Both bilingual groups showed significantly faster reaction times and fewer errors than the two monolingual groups on the visual hemifield paradigm. The bilingual groups also performed similarly on the dual-task paradigm, while the MWS group tended to show greater task disruption. No meaningful relationship was found between stuttering severity and the majority of results obtained for the test conditions. However, all four language modalities were found to correlate significantly with results obtained for the visual hemifield and dual-task paradigms, suggesting that performance on these tests increased with higher L2 proficiency. Conclusion: Although no differences in language lateralisation were found, it appears that bilingualism had a greater influence on functional cerebral hemispheric processing than stuttering. A prevailing finding was that bilingualism seems to be able to offset deficits in executive functioning associated with stuttering. Brain reserve and cognitive reserve are thought to have a close interrelationship with the executive control system. Cognitive reserve may have been reflected in the present study, resulting in a bilingual cognitive advantage. Hence, the results of the present study lend support to previous findings implicating the benefits of bilingualism.

The character of the stutterer in three works of German literature is the focus of this master’s thesis, Der Stotterer als Sündenbock: Eine marginalisierte Figur in drei deutschen Prosawerken. Two novels and one story were chosen for this project: Alfred Döblin’s Berlin Alexanderplatz. Die Geschichte von Franz Biberkopf, published in 1929; Gottesdiener by Petra Morsbach, published in 2004; and “Der Stotterer” by Lutz Seiler, published in 2009. These works were chosen because they are among the few that portray stuttering characters in major, rather than in peripheral, roles. The main goal of the thesis is to examine the characteristics of stuttering and the portrayal of the three stutterers. On the basis of four categories concerning the phenomenon of stuttering, a detailed analysis of these three characters is provided. These categories examine the symptomatology of stuttering itself and the contentious explanations of its origins. The effects of stuttering on the social-psychological level are also of great interest. Further, the analysis will examine the theme of healing, and the effects on the narrative of the stutterers’ self-aware reflection on their condition, or lack of such reflection. On a second interpretative level, two theoretical works are applied to the characteristics of the stutterers. The first is the theory and definition of ‘stigma’ by American sociologist Erving Goffman in his work Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity (1963). This will be used to identify characteristics that mark the stutterer in a negative way. The second theoretical work is Der Sündenbock (Le Bouc émissaire; 1988), written by the French historian and critic René Girard. On the basis of Girard’s work, the hypothesis is put forward that all three stutterers show characteristics of the scapegoat. The interpretations of the stutterers as scapegoats are thus based on the stigma (in Goffman’s terms) and criteria of victims or sacrifices (in Girard’s terms). Furthermore, these two theoretical works are connected by the notion that differences and deviations are important for the maintenance of norms in society. One of the results is that there seems to be an increasing tendency to describe the attribute of stuttering as a ‘normal’ attribute. The stutterer nonetheless remains a marginalized character in all three literary texts. Moreover, all three of the analyzed stutterers can be shown to demonstrate different aspects of the scapegoat complex, thus making the maintenance of normal society dependent upon their sacrifice.

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Bakalauro darbe analizuojamas mikčiojimas ir jo įveikimo galimybės. Taikant atvejo analizės metodą per naratyvo strategiją, atliekamas įvykusio fakto kokybinis tyrimas. Tyrimo tikslas - atskleisti mikčiojimo įveikimo galimybes. Tyrime dalyvavo 14 respondentų, 1 mikčiojantysis ir jo mama. Darbas buvo atliktas 2013 - 2014 metų gruodžio – sausio mėnesį Klaipėdos mieste. Pradžioje pateiktas tiriamojo apibūdinimas, kuris remiasi medicininės kortelės duomenimis ir mamos prisiminimais. Anketinės apklausos metodu tirta, kaip pedagogai, mikčiojančiojo draugai ir kiti aplinkiniai žmonės reagavo į mikčiojimą ir kokius pagalbos metodus ir būdus jie taikė siekiant padėti mikčiojančiajam mažinti įtampą ir kalbėjimo baimę. Interviu, tiriamuoju metodu siekta ištirti jo asmeninius išgyvenimus dėl mikčiojimo bei sužinoti, kokius metodus ir būdus jis taikydavo įveikiant savo sutrikimą. Tyrimu nustatyta, kad pats tiriamasis ir jo šeima aktyviai ieškojo galimybių įveikti mikčiojimą. Taikant įvairius medicininės, logopedinės pagalbos metodus bei sportą, jaunuoliui pavyko įveikti sutrikimą. Pedagogai, draugai ir kiti aplinkiniai žmonės palaikydavo tiriamąjį bei suteikdavo jam kompetentingą pagalbą. Tyrimas atskleidė, kad mikčiojimo įveikimą lėmė tam tikri tiriamojo charakterio bruožai, sportas, amžius bei visų aplinkinių žmonių, kaip sistemos, palaikymas ir pagalba. / Final Bachelor degree paper analyses stuttering and ways to overcome this speech disorder. Qualitative research study of accomplished fact is conducted by implementing case analysis method through narrative strategies. Aim of the research study is to distinguish possibilities of overcoming stuttering. 14 respondents, 1 stuttering person and his mother had participated in the research study which was conducted during December 2013 – January 2014 in Klaipeda. Initially, a description of the respondent based on his medical history and recollections of his mother. The survey helped analyse how pedagogues, friends of the stuttering person and surrounding people reacted to the stuttering and what ways and methods they applied in order to help the stutterer reduce tension and overcome the fear to speak. The interview with the stutterer was intended to analyse his personal experience and identify self-therapy methods he applied. The research study showed that the respondent and his family actively searched for ways to overcome stuttering. This young man was able to overcome stuttering with the help of medical and speech therapy methods and sports. His pedagogues and friends were very supportive and ready to help. Results of the research study showed that the respondent overcame stuttering due to his certain personality features, sports, age and support of people that surrounded him.

This thesis explored adolescent nonstutterers' preferences for the stuttering control patterns: bounce, prolongation, light contact, and conversational rate control. A videotape was produced of a black and white speaker imitating stuttering and portraying the four control patterns. Adolescents viewed the tape in small groups and rated the stuttering control patterns on a Likert seven point rating scale according to their degree of preference for each. The conversational rate control pattern was found to be the most preferred method of stuttering control for the adolescent viewer.Analyses of viewer race and socioeconomic status and the interactions between viewer race and speaker race were made also. The significant findings yielded a higher mean rating given to the black speaker by black and white viewers. This finding was interpreted in support of the hypothesis that adolescent peers expect and demand a return to increased fluency more so for a member of the black culture than of a white culture.

This qualitative pilot study investigated the bullying experiences of children who stutter, the type of coping strategies that they use to deal with these experiences, and their perceptions of the effectiveness of their coping strategies. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with seven 10- to 13-year-old children who stutter. Grounded theory methodology was used to analyze the interview data. Data analysis resulted in a preliminary four-element conceptualization of the process by which children who stutter experience and respond to bullying and the emergence of two themes: Individual Factors and Recommendations. Individual factors were found to influence the process of experiencing and responding to bullying, and recommendations are provided for how children who stutter may respond to bullying and how adults can help them. These recommendations may be used by speech-language pathologists, school psychologists, counselors, teachers, and parents. The findings of this study support previous research with typical children and children who stutter. / Speech Language Pathology

Recently, research has postulated that stuttering is a motor disorder that results from brain abnormalities within the central nervous system. Based on evidence of numerous irregularities within various motor systems, it has been suggested that other motor domains may be comprised. In particular, research in individuals who stutter has found fine, gross, and visual-spatial motor impairment. These studies, though, are dated, have numerous methodological concerns, or yielded contradictory results. Thus, this study investigated whether motor skills in children who stutter (CWS) were compromised. Fine motor skills are important in a school environment because students are required to utilize these skills to complete various assignments and projects, such as cutting and folding paper. Gross motor skills are equally as important as children use these skills to move around their environment. Visual-spatial motor skills are vital for children as they are often required to copy notes off of the board. Deficits in any of these areas may have potentially harmful effects on school performance. Thus, in a school setting, school psychologists are a valuable asset, as they are trained to consult and work with "at risk" populations to prevent long-term problems. Given the potential motor deficits in CWS, school psychologists can intervene and provide appropriate accommodations to remediate any motor deficits. Participants included 12 CWS and 12 children who do not stutter (CWNS). Participants were recruited from a large urban school district and were administered the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Second Edition (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005; BOT-2). Parents completed a demographic questionnaire. One Way Analyses of Variance (ANOVAs) were calculated to compare group means. Results indicated that CWS performed poorer on all but one motor area. Given these results, when a child is identified with a disfluency problem, a broader consideration of issues that may be facing the child is warranted. In particular, school psychologists are in a position to intervene and provide appropriate services to an "at risk" population (i.e., CWS) by conducting a brief motor assessment to identify motor strengths and weaknesses. If warranted, school psychologists can provide accommodations and services to address any identified weaknesses in motor areas.

Doctor of Philosophy / Despite the number of bilinguals and speakers of English and Mandarin worldwide, up till now there have been no investigations of stuttering in any of the Chinese languages, or in bilinguals who speak both English and Mandarin. Hence, it is not known whether stuttering behavior in Mandarin mimics that in English, or whether speech restructuring techniques such as Prolonged Speech produce the same fluency outcomes in Mandarin speakers as they do for English speakers. Research into stuttering in bilinguals is available but far from adequate. Although the limited extant studies show that bilinguals who stutter (BWS) may stutter either the same or differently across languages, and that treatment effects in one language can automatically carry over to the other language, it is unclear whether these findings are influenced by factors such as language dominance or language structure. These issues need to be clarified because speech language pathologists (SLPs) who work with bilinguals often do not speak the dominant language of their clients. Thus, the language of assessment and treatment becomes an important clinical consideration. The aim of this thesis was to investigate (a) whether the severity and type of stuttering was different in English and Mandarin in English-Mandarin bilingual adults, (b) whether this difference was influenced by language dominance, (c) whether stuttering reductions in English generalized to Mandarin following treatment in English only, and (d) whether treatment generalization was influenced by language dominance. To achieve these aims, a way of establishing the dominant language in bilinguals was a necessary first step. The first part of this thesis reviews the disorder of stuttering and the treatment for adults who stutter, the differences between English and Chinese languages, and stuttering in bilinguals. Part Two of this thesis describes the development of a tool for determining language dominance in a multilingual Asian population such as that found in Singapore. This study reviews the complex issues involved in assessing language dominance. It presents the rationale for and description of a self-report classification tool for identifying the dominant language in English-Mandarin bilingual Singaporeans. The decision regarding language dominance was based on a predetermined set of criteria using self-report questionnaire data on language proficiency, frequency of language use, and domain of language use. The tool was administered to 168 English-Mandarin bilingual participants, and the self-report data were validated against the results of a discriminant analysis. The discriminant analysis revealed a reliable three-way classification into English-dominant, Mandarin-dominant, and balanced bilinguals. Scores on a single word receptive vocabulary test supported these dominance classifications. Part Three of this thesis contains two studies investigating stuttering in BWS. The second study of this thesis examined the influence of language dominance on the manifestation of stuttering in English-Mandarin BWS. Results are presented for 30 English-Mandarin BWS who were divided according to their bilingual classification group: 15 English-dominant, four Mandarin-dominant, and 11 balanced bilinguals. All participants underwent comprehensive speech evaluations in both languages. The English-dominant and Mandarin-dominant BWS were found to exhibit greater stuttering in their less dominant language, whereas the balanced bilinguals evidenced similar levels of stuttering in both languages. An analysis of the types of stutter using the Lidcombe Behavioral Data Language showed no significant differences between English and Mandarin for all bilingual groups. In the third study of this thesis, the influence of language dominance on the generalization of stuttering reductions from English to Mandarin was investigated. Results are provided for seven English-dominant, three Mandarin-dominant, and four balanced bilinguals who underwent a Smooth Speech intensive program in English only. A comparison of stuttering between their pretreatment scores and three posttreatment interval scores indicated that the degree of fluency transfer from the treated to the untreated language was disproportionate. English-dominant and Mandarin-dominant participants showed greater fluency improvement in their dominant language even if this language was not directly treated. In the final chapter, Part Four, a hypothesis is provided to explain the findings of this thesis. A discussion of the limitations of the thesis and suggestions for future research are also presented. The chapter concludes with a summary of the main contributions that this thesis makes to the field of stuttering in bilinguals.