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A síndrome de McCune Albrigth (SMA) é uma doença genética não hereditária, com incidência estimada entre 1/100.000 e 1/1.000.000 casos/ano. A SMA caracteriza-se clinicamente pela tríade: displasia óssea fibrosa (FD), manchas cutâneas café-com-leite e hiperfunção endócrina tais como: síndrome de Cushing, pseudo-puberdade precoce, hipertiroidismo, acromegalia. O diagnóstico da SMA clássica é usualmente baseado no quadro clínico associado a dosagens hormonais e exames de imagem, principalmente cintilografia do esqueleto. No entanto, quadros atípicos e formas parciais muitas vezes dificultam o diagnóstico preciso da síndrome. O objetivo deste estudo foi padronizar dentre as técnicas de PNA (peptide nucleic acid) e PCT em Tempo Real, para a detecção de polimorfismos de base única (SNPs), a técnica mais sensível para a discriminação das mutações ativadoras da subunidade da proteína G. Para este estudo foram selecionados 32 pacientes, 1 masculino e 31 femininos, com SMA, todos em seguimento no Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da USP. Como resultado positivo, apresentamos nesse trabalho pela primeira vez o uso do RT-PCR genotipagem na detecção das mutações ativadoras da proteína G, em DNA extraído de tecidos afetados e em leucócitos de sangue periférico, sendo a técnica considerada sensível o suficiente para discriminar de forma simples e rápida as mutações ativadoras da PGs. Sugerimos nesse estudo o uso da técnica de discriminação alélica pelo sistema Taqman. Essa técnica possibilita a detecção destas mutações gsp no sangue periférico mesmo numa baixa porcentagem, uma vez que nem sempre o tecido afetado (gônada, osso, hipófise) é disponível. / The McCune-Albright Syndrome (MAS) is a genetic disease, with incidence estimated at 1/100.000 and 1/1000000 cases per year. MAS is clinically characterized by the triad: bone fibrous dysplasia (FD) café-au-lait skin spots and endocrine hyperfunction, such as: precocious puberty (PP), Cushing's syndrome, hyperthyroidism and acromegaly. The diagnosis of MAS is originally based on clinical characteristics associated with hormonal and imaging studies. However, atypical and partial forms often hamper the accurate diagnosis of the syndrome. For this study we selected 32 patients, 1male and 31 females, all being treated in Hospital das Clínicas, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo. As a positive result, we showed for the first time the use of Real Time PCR/genotyping for the detection of activating mutations of the stimulatory G protein, using blood leucocytes DNA. This technique was sensible and can bring fast results for the patient and the physician, making the diagnosis easier. Our study proposes the use of allelic discrimination by Taqman system, which can be used as a probe that allows the identification of specific genotypes. These techniques could help detect these mutations in peripheral blood when the affected tissue is not available.

A hipóxia é capaz de alterar muitos mecanismos bioquímicos nas células endoteliais. Dentre eles, a indução da expressão endotelial de moléculas de adesão, como o fator de von Willebrand (FVW) que, em resposta ao estímulo, é secretado em sua forma mais ativa na interação com as plaquetas, o que pode resultar em trombose. Nas condições fisiológicas, o padrão multimérico do FVW no plasma é essencialmente determinado pela ADAMTS-13 (uma desintegrina e metaloproteinase com domínios trombospondina). Este estudo teve como objetivo verificar se a atividade da enzima ADAMTS-13, assim como as características do FVW relacionáveis a ela, poderiam estar alteradas na presença de hipoxemia comparativamente à condição de oxigenação normal. Este estudo longitudinal envolveu 56 pacientes portadores de cardiopatias congênitas cianogênicas, em idades entre um e sete anos, candidatos ao tratamento cirúrgico. Os pacientes foram avaliados no pré-cirúrgico (basal), no pós-operatório imediato (pós 48 horas) e após 30 dias de cirurgia, e foram divididos em dois grupos (A e B) baseado na saturação periférica de oxigênio (SpO2) no momento pós 30 dias. Foram determinados o antígeno do FVW e a análise das suas subunidades, a atividade da ADAMTS-13 e a presença de inibidores da ADAMTS-13. Os pacientes de ambos os grupos apresentaram aumento significante da SpO2, da concentração antigênica do FVW e da atividade da ADAMTS-13 nos momentos pós 48 horas e pós 30 dias em comparação com o momento pré (basal). As densidades normalizadas da subunidade principal do FVW (225 kDa) e do fragmento de 176 kDa apresentaram tendência ao aumento nos momentos pós 48 horas e pós 30 dias nos dois grupos. A razão entre a atividade da ADAMTS-13 e o FVW estava menor do que 1 no momento pós 48 horas, indicando consumo da enzima; entretanto, no momento pós 30 dias a razão fica 1:1, e o FVW se aproxima dos valores de referência. Verificamos ainda que 29% destes pacientes apresentaram inibidores contra a ADAMTS-13 no momento pré-operatório. Ainda explorando as variáveis SpO2, FVW:Ag, atividade da ADAMTS-13 e a composição das subunidades do FVW, foi feito um estudo de correlação linear entre estas variáveis. Observamos uma baixa correlação entre a enzima ADAMTS-13 e o FVW:Ag, e da enzima com os fragmentos do FVW de 176 e 140 kDa, principalmente no grupo B. No grupo A, esta correlação no momento pós 48 horas mostrou tendência a ser negativa. A maioria dos pacientes apresentou melhoras na saturação periférica de oxigênio. O aumento das variáveis estudadas no pós-operatório imediato pode ter ocorrido em função da cirurgia, que provavelmente ocasionou um quadro de lesão endotelial com inflamação, indicando que pode existir um equilíbrio entre o FVW e a ADAMTS-13 em níveis fisiológicos. Entretanto, este equilíbrio pode ser quebrado quando ocorre aumento do FVW, provavelmente por consumo da enzima. Parece-nos, portanto, que a ADAMTS-13 pode funcionar como um mecanismo de proteção a estes pacientes com tendência à trombose / Hypoxia has been shown to alter several biochemical mechanisms in endothelial cells. In addition, hypoxia induces the endothelial expression of adhesion molecules, including von Willebrand factor (VWF). Increased release of high-molecular-weight VWF multimers is associated with higher risk for thrombotic events. In physiological conditions, the multimeric pattern of plasma VWF is essentially determined by the action of ADAMTS-13 (a desintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin type 1 domains). The aim of this study was to investigate if ADAMTS-13 activity and VWF subunit fragments were altered by hypoxia in cyanotic congenital heart disease. Fiftysix patients (age 1 to 7 years) with cyanotic congenital heart disease admitted to the Heart Institute for heart surgery were included in this longitudinal study. Patients were evaluated before (baseline) corrective surgery, postoperative 48 hours and postoperative 30 days. Patients were classified in two groups (A and B) based on the peripheral oxygen saturation after 30 days surgery. VWF antigenic concentration, VWF subunit composition, ADAMTS-13 activity and presence of ADAMTS-13 inhibitors were determined. Peripheral oxygen saturation, VWF:Ag and ADAMTS-13 activity were all increased significantly in both groups, in postoperative 48 hours and postoperative 30 days in comparison with baseline moment. Normalized density of VWF main subunit (225 kDa) and proteolytic fragment with 176 kDa tended to increase in postoperative 48 hours and postoperative 30 days in both groups. The rate between ADAMTS-13 activity and VWF:Ag was lower than 1 in postoperative 48 hours, an indicating of enzyme consumption; however, in the postoperative 30 days the rate was 1:1 and VWF:Ag values were near those of reference. 29% of patients presented ADAMTS-13 inhibitors at the baseline moment. A study of correlation among variables as peripheral oxygen saturation, VWF:Ag, VWF subunit composition and ADAMTS-13 was done. It was observed that ADAMTS-13 correlated slightly positively with VWF:Ag and with VWF fragments 176 and 140 kDa, mainly in group B; in group A, the correlation at postoperative 48 hours tended to be negative. Most of the patients improved their peripheral oxygen saturation. The increased value of variables observed in postoperative 48 hours can be explained by the endothelial injury and inflammation caused by the surgery itself. This indicates an equilibrium between VWF:Ag and ADAMTS-13 in physiological conditions. However, this equilibrium could disappear when VWF is increased, probably by enzyme consumption. We conclude that ADAMTS-13 can act as a protective mechanism in these patients with thrombotic tendency

Neste trabalho é descrito um método prático e eficiente para dissociar, em subunidades &alpha; e &beta;, quantidades pequenas (da ordem de microgramas) dos hormônios foliculotrofina (hFSH), luteotrofina (hLH) e tireotrofina (hTSH) humana, nativos e recombinantes. A dissociação destes hormônios foi conseguida incubando-os, durante 16 horas, a 37ºC, com diferentes concentrações de ácido acético: 3M, 5M e 0,4M respectivamente para o hFSH, hLH e hTSH. Nestas condições, uma eficiência de dissociação acima de 98% foi obtida. Esta eficiência foi calculada com base nas determinações de massa dos heterodímeros e das subunidades, realizadas por MALDI-TOF-MS. Uma separação rápida e quantitativa das subunidades, com rendimentos da ordem de 80-90%, foi conseguida por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência em fase reversa (RP-HPLC) em uma coluna C4. As subunidades foram caracterizadas quanto à pureza, hidrofobicidade, massa molecular e distribuição de carga por HPLC de exclusão molecular e fase reversa, SDS-PAGE e focalização isoelétrica. Quando analisadas quanto à hidrofobicidade, as subunidades mostraram-se aproximadamente iguais, enquanto as subunidades &beta; dos três heterodímeros apresentaram a seguinte escala de hidrofobicidade: &beta;-hFSH < &beta;-hTSH < &beta;-hLH. Com relação à massa molecular relativa (Mr), as subunidades &alpha; e &beta; do hFSH apresentaram as maiores Mr enquanto as subunidades do hLH as menores. A distribuição dos isômeros de carga das subunidades dos três hormônios ocorreu em uma região ácida, para o hFSH, em uma região básica, para o hLH e em uma região intermediária, para o hTSH. As subunidades &alpha; dos três hormônios, quando analisadas via SDS-PAGE, apresentaram praticamente a mesma mobilidade eletroforética, enquanto as subunidades &beta; apresentaram diferentes taxas de migração (mR), sendo mR &beta;-hFSH < mR &beta;-hTSH < mR &beta;-hLH. Diferenças relativas à massa molecular, hidrofobicidade, migração eletroforética e distribuição de carga foram encontradas entre as preparações recombinantes e hipofisárias dos três hormônios. O método descrito é suave, prático e flexível e pode ser adaptado à dissociação de outras glicoproteínas heterodiméricas recombinantes ou nativas. Permite não só estudos e caracterização direta de cada subunidade, como também detectar a presença de subunidades livres em preparações farmacêuticas, que são contaminantes indesejáveis, sendo, portanto, uma ferramenta extremamente útil para o controle de qualidade de produtos farmacêuticos. / In this work a practical and efficient method for the dissociation into &alpha;-and &beta;-subunits of small amounts (microgram range) of pituitaryderived and recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone (hFSH), human luteotropin (hLH) and human thyrotropin (hTSH) is described. Dissociation was achieved by overnight treatment of the glycoproteins, at 37ºC, with acetic acid in different concentrations: 3M, 5M and 0,4M for hFSH, hLH and hTSH respectively. In these conditions, a dissociation efficiency of > 98% was attained. This efficiency was calculated on the basis of relative mass determinations of the heterodimers and subunits carried out via mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). The &alpha;-and &beta;-subunits were rapidly and quantitatively separated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) on a C4 column with yields of the order of 80-90%. The isolated subunits were characterized concerning their purity, hidrophobicity, molecular mass and charge distribution, via size exclusion and RP-HPLC, SDS-PAGE and isoelectric focusing. When analyzed with relation to the hydrophobicity, the &alpha;-subunits presented approximately the same hydrophobicity, while &beta;-subunits showed the following scale: &beta-hFSH < &beta;-hTSH < &beta;-hLH. Concerning molecular mass, &alpha;- and &beta;-subunits of hFSH were shown to have the highest while hLH subunits the lowest. Charge isomers of the subunits of the three glycohormones were predominantly distributed in an acidic region for hFSH, in a basic region for hLH, and in a wider pH range (acidic and basic) for hTSH. Similar migration rates (mR), analyzed via SDS-PAGE, were observed for the &alpha;-subunits of the three hormones. A greater variation was found for the &beta;-subunits: mR &beta;-hFSH < mR &beta;-hTSH < mR &beta;-hLH. Differences between recombinant and pituitary preparations of three hormones were observed with relation to molecular mass, hydrophobicity, electrophoretic migration and charge distribution. The described method is mild, practical and flexible and can be adapted to dissociate any recombinant or native heterodimeric glycoprotein, allowing studies and direct characterization of each subunit as well as the detection of free subunits that are undesired contaminants in pharmaceutical preparations, being also an extremely useful tool for the quality control of pharmaceutical products.

Neste trabalho é descrito um método prático e eficiente para dissociar, em subunidades &alpha; e &beta;, quantidades pequenas (da ordem de microgramas) dos hormônios foliculotrofina (hFSH), luteotrofina (hLH) e tireotrofina (hTSH) humana, nativos e recombinantes. A dissociação destes hormônios foi conseguida incubando-os, durante 16 horas, a 37ºC, com diferentes concentrações de ácido acético: 3M, 5M e 0,4M respectivamente para o hFSH, hLH e hTSH. Nestas condições, uma eficiência de dissociação acima de 98% foi obtida. Esta eficiência foi calculada com base nas determinações de massa dos heterodímeros e das subunidades, realizadas por MALDI-TOF-MS. Uma separação rápida e quantitativa das subunidades, com rendimentos da ordem de 80-90%, foi conseguida por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência em fase reversa (RP-HPLC) em uma coluna C4. As subunidades foram caracterizadas quanto à pureza, hidrofobicidade, massa molecular e distribuição de carga por HPLC de exclusão molecular e fase reversa, SDS-PAGE e focalização isoelétrica. Quando analisadas quanto à hidrofobicidade, as subunidades mostraram-se aproximadamente iguais, enquanto as subunidades &beta; dos três heterodímeros apresentaram a seguinte escala de hidrofobicidade: &beta;-hFSH < &beta;-hTSH < &beta;-hLH. Com relação à massa molecular relativa (Mr), as subunidades &alpha; e &beta; do hFSH apresentaram as maiores Mr enquanto as subunidades do hLH as menores. A distribuição dos isômeros de carga das subunidades dos três hormônios ocorreu em uma região ácida, para o hFSH, em uma região básica, para o hLH e em uma região intermediária, para o hTSH. As subunidades &alpha; dos três hormônios, quando analisadas via SDS-PAGE, apresentaram praticamente a mesma mobilidade eletroforética, enquanto as subunidades &beta; apresentaram diferentes taxas de migração (mR), sendo mR &beta;-hFSH < mR &beta;-hTSH < mR &beta;-hLH. Diferenças relativas à massa molecular, hidrofobicidade, migração eletroforética e distribuição de carga foram encontradas entre as preparações recombinantes e hipofisárias dos três hormônios. O método descrito é suave, prático e flexível e pode ser adaptado à dissociação de outras glicoproteínas heterodiméricas recombinantes ou nativas. Permite não só estudos e caracterização direta de cada subunidade, como também detectar a presença de subunidades livres em preparações farmacêuticas, que são contaminantes indesejáveis, sendo, portanto, uma ferramenta extremamente útil para o controle de qualidade de produtos farmacêuticos. / In this work a practical and efficient method for the dissociation into &alpha;-and &beta;-subunits of small amounts (microgram range) of pituitaryderived and recombinant human follicle-stimulating hormone (hFSH), human luteotropin (hLH) and human thyrotropin (hTSH) is described. Dissociation was achieved by overnight treatment of the glycoproteins, at 37ºC, with acetic acid in different concentrations: 3M, 5M and 0,4M for hFSH, hLH and hTSH respectively. In these conditions, a dissociation efficiency of > 98% was attained. This efficiency was calculated on the basis of relative mass determinations of the heterodimers and subunits carried out via mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). The &alpha;-and &beta;-subunits were rapidly and quantitatively separated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) on a C4 column with yields of the order of 80-90%. The isolated subunits were characterized concerning their purity, hidrophobicity, molecular mass and charge distribution, via size exclusion and RP-HPLC, SDS-PAGE and isoelectric focusing. When analyzed with relation to the hydrophobicity, the &alpha;-subunits presented approximately the same hydrophobicity, while &beta;-subunits showed the following scale: &beta-hFSH < &beta;-hTSH < &beta;-hLH. Concerning molecular mass, &alpha;- and &beta;-subunits of hFSH were shown to have the highest while hLH subunits the lowest. Charge isomers of the subunits of the three glycohormones were predominantly distributed in an acidic region for hFSH, in a basic region for hLH, and in a wider pH range (acidic and basic) for hTSH. Similar migration rates (mR), analyzed via SDS-PAGE, were observed for the &alpha;-subunits of the three hormones. A greater variation was found for the &beta;-subunits: mR &beta;-hFSH < mR &beta;-hTSH < mR &beta;-hLH. Differences between recombinant and pituitary preparations of three hormones were observed with relation to molecular mass, hydrophobicity, electrophoretic migration and charge distribution. The described method is mild, practical and flexible and can be adapted to dissociate any recombinant or native heterodimeric glycoprotein, allowing studies and direct characterization of each subunit as well as the detection of free subunits that are undesired contaminants in pharmaceutical preparations, being also an extremely useful tool for the quality control of pharmaceutical products.

Gαq signaling is implicated in a number of physiological processes that include platelet activation, cardiovascular development and smooth muscle function. Historically, Gαq is known to function by activating its effector, phospholipase Cβ. Desensitization of Gαq signaling is mediated by G-protein coupled receptor kinases (GRK) such as GRK2 that phosphorylates the activated receptor and also sequesters activated Gαq and Gβγ subunits. Our crystal structure of Gαq-GRK2-Gβγ complex shows that Gαq forms effector-like interactions with the regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) homology domain of GRK2 involving the classic effector-binding site of Gα subunits, raising the question if GRK2 can itself be a Gáq effector and initiate its own signaling cascade. In the structure, Gα and Gβγ subunits are completely dissociated from one another and the orientation of activated Gαq with respect to the predicted cell membrane is drastically different from its position in the inactive Gαβγ heterotrimer. Recent studies have identified a novel Gαq effector, p63RhoGEF that activates RhoA. Our crystal structure of the Gαq-p63RhoGEF-RhoA complex reveals that Gαq interacts with both the Dbl homology (DH) and pleckstrin homology (PH) domains of p63RhoGEF with its C-terminal helix and its effector-binding site, respectively. The structure predicts that Gαq relieves auto-inhibition of the catalytic DH domain by the PH domain. We show that Gαq activates p63RhoGEF-related family members, Trio and Kalirin, revealing several conduits by which RhoA is activated in response to Gq-coupled receptors. The Gαq effector-site interaction with p63RhoGEF/GRK2 does not overlap with the Gαq-binding site of RGS2/RGS4 that function as GTPase activating proteins (GAPs). This suggests that activated G proteins, effectors, RGS proteins, and activated receptors can form high-order complexes at the cell membrane. We confirmed the formation of RGS-Gαq-effector complexes and our results suggest that signaling pathways initiated by GRK2 and p63RhoGEF are regulated by RGS proteins via both allosteric and GAP mechanisms. Our structural studies of Gαq signaling provide insight into protein-protein interactions that induce profound physiological changes. Understanding such protein interfaces is a key step towards structure-based drug design that can be targeted to treat diseases concerned with impaired Gαq signaling. / text

Η ριβονουκλεάση Ρ (RNase P) είναι ένα ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικό ένζυμο, απολύτως απαραίτητο για την βιωσιμότητα του κυττάρου, καθώς είναι υπεύθυνο για την ωρίμανση του 5΄ άκρου των προδρόμων μορίων tRNA. Δραστικότητα RNase P έχει απομονωθεί από όλους τους οργανισμούς που έχουν μελετηθεί μέχρι σήμερα και από τις τρεις φυλογενετικές περιοχές (Βακτήρια, Αρχαία και Ευκαρυώτες), όπως επίσης και από τα ημιαυτόνομα υποκυτταρικά οργανίδια, μιτοχόνδρια και χλωροπλάστες [Frank και Pace 1998, Xiao et al. 2002]. Το ένζυμο αυτό διαθέτει μια RNA υπομονάδα απαραίτητη για την κατάλυση ενώ ο αριθμός των πρωτεϊνών που συμμετέχουν στο ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικό σύμπλοκο ποικίλλει από μια στα βακτήρια έως και δέκα στην RNase P του ανθρώπου [Frank και Pace 1998, Chamberlain et al. 1998, Jarrous 2002]. Η RNA υπομονάδα από τα Βακτήρια και ορισμένα Αρχαία παρουσιάζει καταλυτική δραστικότητα απουσία πρωτεϊνών in vitro, σε υψηλή ιοντική ισχύ [Guerrier-Takada et al. 1983, Pannucci et al. 1999]. Παρότι μέχρι στιγμής καμία τέτοια ιδιότητα δεν έχει εντοπιστεί σε ευκαρυωτική RNA υπομονάδα, πιστεύεται ότι στην πραγματικότητα πρόκειται για ένα ριβοένζυμο [Frank et al. 2000]. Η RNase P από το Dictyostelium discoideum είναι ένα ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικό σύμπλοκο που αποτελείται από RNA και πρωτεϊνικές υπομονάδες οι οποίες είναι απαραίτητες για την δραστικότητα του ολοενζύμου. Η πυκνότητα επιπολής που υπολογίσθηκε για την RNase P από το D. discoideum είναι πολύ χαμηλή σε σχέση με τα χαρακτηρισμένα ολοένζυμα ευκαρυωτικής προέλευσης και είναι παρόμοια με αυτή ενός πρωτεϊνικού μορίου [Stathopoulos et al. 1995]. Παρότι έχει αποδειχθεί ότι το ολοένζυμο αποτελείται από RNA και πρωτεΐνες, πολύ λίγα είναι γνωστά για την ακριβή σύσταση του ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικού συμπλόκου. Πρόσφατα εντοπίστηκε το γονίδιο της RNA υπομονάδας της RNase P από το D. discoideum μέσω συγκριτικής φυλογενετικής ανάλυσης, μήκους 369 νουκλεοτιδίων [Marquez et al. 2005]. Χρησιμοποιώντας τις πρωτεϊνικές υπομονάδες Rpp20 και Rpp40 της RNase P του ανθρώπου πραγματοποιήθηκε αναζήτηση στη τράπεζα δεδομένων της αλληλούχισης του γενωμικού DNA του D. discoideum. Το αποτέλεσμα της αναζήτησης ήταν η εύρεση δύο ανοιχτών πλαισίων ανάγνωσης (drpp20 και drpp40) που κωδικοποιούν δύο πρωτεΐνες (DRpp20 και DRpp40) οι οποίες παρουσιάζουν σημαντική ομολογία με τις υπομονάδες. Η επαγόμενη πρωτεΐνη DRpp20 έχει προβλεπόμενο μοριακό βάρος 26,4 KD, pI 5,6 και επιδεικνύει σημαντική ομοιότητα με την χαρακτηρισμένη πρωτεϊνική υπομονάδα Rpp20 του ανθρώπου (34% ταυτότητα, 56% ομοιότητα σε μήκος 140 αμινοξέων). Όμοια, η πρωτεΐνη DRpp40 έχει προβλεπόμενο μοριακό βάρος 48,2 KD, pI 5,5 και παρουσιάζει σημαντική ομοιότητα με την πρωτεϊνική υπομονάδα Rpp40 (26% ταυτότητα, 45% ομοιότητα σε μήκος 302 αμινοξέων). Παρά την συνολική ομοιότητα, τα μοριακά βάρη των DRpp20 και DRpp40 διαφέρουν σημαντικά σε σχέση με αυτά των ομόλογων πρωτεϊνών τους. Η DRpp20 διαθέτει μια περιοχή χαμηλής πολυπλοκότητας, πλούσια σε κατάλοιπα θρεονίνης, γλουταμίνης και λυσίνης που πιθανόν να συνεισφέρει στο επιπλέον μοριακό βάρος όπως φαίνεται από την στοίχιση με το Clustal W. Τόσο οι επαναλήψεις τρινουκλεοτιδίων γενωμικών περιοχών όσο και οι περιοχές χαμηλής πολυπλοκότητας σε επίπεδο πρωτεΐνης υπάρχουν σε αφθονία στο D. discoideum [Eichinger et al. 2005] και παραμένει να αποδειχτεί εάν αυτά τα χαρακτηριστικά συνεισφέρουν δομικά ή λειτουργικά στις DRpp. Από βιοπληροφορική ανάλυση προκύπτει ότι καμία από τις υπομονάδες των Αρχαίων ή τις εννέα υπομονάδες της ζύμης δεν παρουσιάζει ομοιότητα με τις DRpp20 και DRpp40. Επιπρόσθετα, με την βοήθεια του Pfam αλλά και των προγραμμάτων που συνδέονται με τον MetaServer εντοπίσαμε στην περιοχή 56-126 αμινοξέα της πρωτεΐνης DRpp20 το δομικό μοτίβο των Alba πρωτεϊνών. Η μελέτη των δύο πρωτεϊνών με βάση τον αλγόριθμο PSORT υποδεικνύει ότι και οι δύο πρωτεΐνες έχουν μεγαλύτερη πιθανότητα για χωροθέτηση στον πυρήνα παρά σε οποιοδήποτε άλλο υποκυτταρικό διαμέρισμα. Στην παρούσα εργασία τα υπό μελέτη γονίδια drpp20 και drpp40 κλωνοποιούνται σε φορέα υπερέκφρασης pET-29 και εισάγονται σε δεκτικά κύτταρα BL21(DE3)pLysS. Οι ανασυνδυασμένες πρωτεΐνες απομονώνονται από το κυτταρικό εκχύλισμα με χρωματογραφία συγγενείας σε στήλη νικελίου. Οι πρωτεΐνες DRpp20 και DRpp40 με την μέθοδο που απομονώνονται παραλαμβάνονται σχεδόν στην φυσική τους μορφή όπως προκύπτει και από τα φάσματα του κυκλικού διχρωϊσμού. Οι πρωτεΐνες αυτές χρησιμοποιούνται για την παραγωγή πολυκλωνικών αντισωμάτων καθώς επίσης και για λειτουργικές μελέτες οι οποίες περιγράφονται παρακάτω. Όπως αποδεικνύεται οι πρωτεΐνες DRpp20 και DRpp40 αποτελούν τμήματα του μακρομοριακού συμπλόκου της RNase P. Πολυκλωνικά αντισώματα έναντι των συγκεκριμένων πρωτεϊνών ανιχνεύουν μία ζώνη που συνεκλούεται με την δραστικότητα του ολοενζύμου σε ανάλυση κατά Western. Επιπρόσθετα, η ισχύς αυτής της αλληλεπίδρασης επιτρέπει την κατακρήμνιση καταλυτικά δραστικού ενζύμου με την χρήση των πολυκλωνικών αντισωματών anti-DRpp20 και anti-DRpp40. Μεταξύ των πρωτεϊνών και της RNA υπομονάδας καθώς επίσης του tRNA υποστρώματος αναμένεται να υπάρχουν αλληλεπιδράσεις RNA πρωτεϊνών. Για το λόγο αυτό ελέγχθηκε η ικανότητα των πρωτεϊνών DRpp20 και DRpp40 να αλληλεπιδρούν με μόρια RNA και ιδιαίτερα με μόρια tRNA. Σε μία σειρά πειραμάτων που πραγματοποιήθηκαν δοκιμάστηκαν μόρια tRNA, ολικό RNA αλλά και πλασμιδιακό DNA χωρίς όμως κάποιο αποτέλεσμα στις συνθήκες που πραγματοποιήθηκε η αντίδραση, παρότι άλλες πρωτεΐνες που φέρουν το μοτίβο των Alba πρωτεϊνών έχουν την ικανότητα να αλληλεπιδρούν με μόρια DNA ή δίκλωνα τμήματα RNA. Τέλος, για τις DRpp20, DRpp40 αλλά και το ολοένζυμο, πραγματοποιήθηκε έλεγχος για δραστικότητα ΑΤΡασης κυρίως εξαιτίας της ομολογίας της πρώτης με την Rpp20 του ανθρώπου που διαθέτει τέτοια ιδιότητα, χωρίς να ανιχνεύεται μέσω βιοπληροφορικής ανάλυσης σημαντική ομολογία με αντίστοιχα ένζυμα. Στις συνθήκες που δοκιμάστηκαν δεν ανιχνεύτηκε δραστικότητα ΑΤΡασης που να σχετίζεται με κάποια από τις δύο πρωτεΐνες ή το ολοένζυμο. Ο απώτερος στόχος μας είναι ο προσδιορισμός της ελάχιστης λειτουργικής δομής καθώς και η χαρτογράφηση των αλληλεπιδράσεων πρωτεΐνης-πρωτεΐνης και RNA-πρωτεΐνης στο ολοένζυμο της RNase P. Η ολοκλήρωση της μελέτης θα συμβάλλει στην κατανόηση του καταλυτικού μηχανισμού και της εξέλιξης της ριβονουκλεάσης Ρ από ένα αρχέγονο ριβοένζυμο σε ένα υψηλά οργανωμένο ριβονουκλεοπρωτεϊνικό σύμπλοκο. / Ribonuclease P (RNase P) is a ubiquitous and essential ribonucleoprotein enzyme that matures the 5´ end of all primary tRNA transcripts. It has been studied from a variety of organisms, representing the three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya), as well as from the major subcellular organelles, mitochondria and chloroplasts [Frank and Pace 1998, Xiao et al. 2002]. RNase P enzymes contain a similar in size RNA subunit which is absolutely required for catalysis. However, the size and number of protein subunits of the holoenzyme varies significantly, from one small subunit in bacteria to ten subunits in human RNase P [Frank and Pace 1998, Chamberlain et al. 1998, Jarrous 2002]. The RNA subunit from bacteria and some archaea is catalytically active in vitro in high ionic strength and in the absence of the protein fraction of RNase P [Guerrier-Takada et al.1983, Pannucci et al. 1999]. No such activity has been proven yet for eukaryotic RNA subunit but is still considered to be intrinsically a ribozyme [Frank et al. 2000]. Dictyostelium discoideum RNase P holoenzyme is a ribonucleoprotein complex, consisted of RNA and proteins essential for catalytic activity. Considering its buoyant density, D. discoideum RNase P exhibits one of the most proteinaceous idiosyncrasies, among the characterized holoenzymes of eukaryotic origin [Stathopoulos et al. 1995]. Although it has been established that this enzyme contains both RNA and protein components, very little is known on the exact composition of the ribonucleoprotein complex. A recent report identified a putative RNA subunit of D. discoideum RNase P of length of 369 nucleotides through phylogenetic comparative analysis [Marquez et al. 2005]. Genomic analysis of the available data from D. discoideum sequencing projects, revealed among others the existence of two open reading frames (drpp20 and drpp40) encoding two proteins (DRpp20 and DRpp40) that show significant similarity to previously characterized proteins subunits Rpp20 and Rpp40 from human RNase P. The encoded protein DRpp20 has a predicted molecular mass of 26,4 KD, pI 5,6 and exhibits significant similarity to characterized human RNase P protein subunit, Rpp20 (34% identity, 56% similarity at a length of 140 amino acids). Likewise, the protein DRpp40 of a predicted mass of 48,2 KD and pI 5,5, displays significant similarity to its human counterpart, Rpp40 (26% identity, 45% similarity at a length of 302 amino acids). DRpp20 harbors a region of low complexity (rich in threonine residues) which confers to higher MW in comparison with the human homologue. Such regions have not been encountered so far in proteins of this kind in other organisms. Tandem repeats at the genomic and the protein level, are abundant in D. discoideum [Eichinger et al. 2005] and it remains to be proven if these features contribute to the structure and function of DRpp proteins. To the best of our knowledge no homologues of DRpp20 and DRpp40 have been identified in yeast and archaeal RNase P enzymes. Additionally, pattern search of the D. discoideum protein sequences using MetaServer and Pfam prediction tools identified a DRpp20 region (amino acids 56 to 126) that bears similarity to the Alba domain. PSORT analysis of DRpp20 and DRpp40 predicts that these proteins are likely to localise into the nucleus. In this study the putative ORFs were subcloned into pET-29 expression vector and the recombinant vectors were used for the transformation of BL21(DE3)pLysS. The recombinant polypeptides were purified from the cell extract using Ni2+-nitriloacetic acid agarose column. The purified proteins are isolated in their native form as supported by circular dichroism analysis of the preparations. These preparations were used for the production of polyclonal antibodies as well as functional studies as described below. DRpp20 and DRpp40 are functionally associated with the RNase P ribonucleoprotein catalytic complex. Using anti-DRpp20 and anti-DRpp40 polyclonal antibodies we ascertained the concurrence of DRpp20 and DRpp40 with purified RNase P activity after standard purification schemes. Moreover, the nature of this association permits the precipitation of RNase P activity through antigen-antibody interaction using the same antibodies. RNA-proteins interactions between the protein subunits, the RNA moiety and/or the RNA substrate are expected in the holoenzyme complex, and therefore the ability of DRpp40 and DRpp20 to bind to RNA molecules was investigated. In a series of experiments using a variety of binding partners (plasmids, tRNAs and total RNA), we did not detect any DNA or RNA binding properties for DRpp20 and DRpp40, although other proteins that contain the Alba core interact with DNA or double stranded RNA regions. Although neither DRpp20 nor DRpp40 harbours an ATPase domain, we tested DRpp40 and DRpp20 for ATPase activity mostly due to the latter homology with human Rpp20, which was shown to have ATPase activity. We could not detect any ATPase activity associated with aforementioned proteins or holoenzyme. Our future prospects are the determination of minimal catalytic core and the complete mapping of all protein-protein and RNA-protein interactions within RNase P holoenzyme. The completion of this project will contribute in a decisive manner to the understanding of both the catalytic mechanism and the evolution of RNase P from a primordial ribozyme to a highly organized ribonucleoprotein complex.

A tentativa de compreender as consequências do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato é muito importante uma vez que este psicoestimulante tem sido amplamente utilizado em crianças de idade pré-escolar. Além disso, pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações persistentes no comportamento e no funcionamento neuronal associada à sua utilização. Neste estudo, nós inicialmente investigamos o efeito do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato sobre o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano. Além disso, foram também avaliados a homeostase glutamatérgica, a Na+,K+-ATPase e o equilíbrio redox no córtex pré-frontal de ratos jovens. Ratos Wistar receberam injeções intraperitoneais de metilfenidato (2,0 mg/kg) ou um volume equivalente de solução salina 0,9% (controles), uma vez por dia, do 15º ao 45º dia de vida. Vinte e quatro horas após a última administração de metilfenidato, os animais foram decapitados e o líquido cefalorraquidiano e o córtex pré-frontal foram obtidos e processados conforme o protocolo para cada uma das análises. Os resultados mostraram que o metilfenidato alterou o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano, aumentando os níveis de glutamato. A captação de glutamato foi diminuída pelo tratamento crônico com metilfenidato, mas o conteúdo dos transportadores, GLAST e GLT-1, não foram alterados por esse tratamento. A atividade e o imunoconteúdo das subunidades catalíticas (α1, α2 e α3) da Na+,K+-ATPase foram diminuídos em córtex pré-frontal de ratos submetidos ao metilfenidato. Alterações na expressão gênica das subunidades α1 e α2 da Na+,K+-ATPase também foram observadas. O conteúdo de sulfidrilas, um marcador inversamente correlacionado com dano proteíco, foi diminuído. A atividade da CAT foi aumentada e a razão SOD/CAT foi diminuída em córtex pré-frontal de ratos. Os demais parâmetros avaliados não apresentaram diferenças significativas quando comparado aos controles. Os nossos resultados, tomados em conjunto, sugerem que o tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato promove excitotoxicidade devido, pelo menos em parte, à inibição da captação de glutamato provavelmente causada por perturbações na função da Na+,K+-ATPase e/ou pelo dano à proteína observados no córtex pré-frontal. Esses achados podem contribuir, pelo menos em parte, para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações bioquímicas e comportamentais associadas ao uso crônico de metilfenidato durante o desenvolvimento do sistema nervoso central. / Understanding the consequences of chronic treatment with methylphenidate is very important since this psychostimulant is extensively in preschool age children. Additionaly to this, little is known about the mechanisms involved in persistent changes in behavior and neuronal function related with use of methylphenidate. In this study, we initially investigate the effect of chronic treatment with methylphenidate in juvenile rats on the amino acids profile in cerebrospinal fluid, as well as on glutamatergic homeostasis, Na+,K+-ATPase function and redox balance in prefrontal cortex. Wistar rats at early age received intraperitoneal injections of methylphenidate (2.0 mg/kg) or an equivalent volume of 0.9% saline solution (controls), once a day, from the 15th to the 45th day of life. Twenty-four hours after the last administration of methylphenidate, the animals were decapitated and the cerebrospinal fluid and the prefrontal cortex were obtained and processed according to the protocol for each analysis. Our results showed that methylphenidate altered amino acid profile in cerebrospinal fluid, increasing the levels of glutamate. In the prefrontal cortex, methylphenidate administration was able to decrease the glutamate uptake, with no changes in GLAST and GLT-1; and the activity and immunocontent of catalytic subunits (α1, α2 and α3) of Na+,K+-ATPase. We also observe changes in α1 and α2 gene expression of catalytic α subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase, decrease in sulfhydryl content, CAT activity and SOD/CAT ratio in juvenile rat prefrontal cortex treated with methylphenidate. Taken together, our results suggest that chronic treatment with methylphenidate at early age induces excitotoxicity, at least in part, due to inhibition of glutamate uptake probably caused by disturbances in the Na+,K+-ATPase function and/or protein damage observed in the prefrontal cortex. These findings may contribute, at least in part, to a better understanding of mechanisms involved in the biochemical and behavioral changes associated with chronic use of methylphenidate during the development of the central nervous system.

A tentativa de compreender as consequências do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato é muito importante uma vez que este psicoestimulante tem sido amplamente utilizado em crianças de idade pré-escolar. Além disso, pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações persistentes no comportamento e no funcionamento neuronal associada à sua utilização. Neste estudo, nós inicialmente investigamos o efeito do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato sobre o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano. Além disso, foram também avaliados a homeostase glutamatérgica, a Na+,K+-ATPase e o equilíbrio redox no córtex pré-frontal de ratos jovens. Ratos Wistar receberam injeções intraperitoneais de metilfenidato (2,0 mg/kg) ou um volume equivalente de solução salina 0,9% (controles), uma vez por dia, do 15º ao 45º dia de vida. Vinte e quatro horas após a última administração de metilfenidato, os animais foram decapitados e o líquido cefalorraquidiano e o córtex pré-frontal foram obtidos e processados conforme o protocolo para cada uma das análises. Os resultados mostraram que o metilfenidato alterou o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano, aumentando os níveis de glutamato. A captação de glutamato foi diminuída pelo tratamento crônico com metilfenidato, mas o conteúdo dos transportadores, GLAST e GLT-1, não foram alterados por esse tratamento. A atividade e o imunoconteúdo das subunidades catalíticas (α1, α2 e α3) da Na+,K+-ATPase foram diminuídos em córtex pré-frontal de ratos submetidos ao metilfenidato. Alterações na expressão gênica das subunidades α1 e α2 da Na+,K+-ATPase também foram observadas. O conteúdo de sulfidrilas, um marcador inversamente correlacionado com dano proteíco, foi diminuído. A atividade da CAT foi aumentada e a razão SOD/CAT foi diminuída em córtex pré-frontal de ratos. Os demais parâmetros avaliados não apresentaram diferenças significativas quando comparado aos controles. Os nossos resultados, tomados em conjunto, sugerem que o tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato promove excitotoxicidade devido, pelo menos em parte, à inibição da captação de glutamato provavelmente causada por perturbações na função da Na+,K+-ATPase e/ou pelo dano à proteína observados no córtex pré-frontal. Esses achados podem contribuir, pelo menos em parte, para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações bioquímicas e comportamentais associadas ao uso crônico de metilfenidato durante o desenvolvimento do sistema nervoso central. / Understanding the consequences of chronic treatment with methylphenidate is very important since this psychostimulant is extensively in preschool age children. Additionaly to this, little is known about the mechanisms involved in persistent changes in behavior and neuronal function related with use of methylphenidate. In this study, we initially investigate the effect of chronic treatment with methylphenidate in juvenile rats on the amino acids profile in cerebrospinal fluid, as well as on glutamatergic homeostasis, Na+,K+-ATPase function and redox balance in prefrontal cortex. Wistar rats at early age received intraperitoneal injections of methylphenidate (2.0 mg/kg) or an equivalent volume of 0.9% saline solution (controls), once a day, from the 15th to the 45th day of life. Twenty-four hours after the last administration of methylphenidate, the animals were decapitated and the cerebrospinal fluid and the prefrontal cortex were obtained and processed according to the protocol for each analysis. Our results showed that methylphenidate altered amino acid profile in cerebrospinal fluid, increasing the levels of glutamate. In the prefrontal cortex, methylphenidate administration was able to decrease the glutamate uptake, with no changes in GLAST and GLT-1; and the activity and immunocontent of catalytic subunits (α1, α2 and α3) of Na+,K+-ATPase. We also observe changes in α1 and α2 gene expression of catalytic α subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase, decrease in sulfhydryl content, CAT activity and SOD/CAT ratio in juvenile rat prefrontal cortex treated with methylphenidate. Taken together, our results suggest that chronic treatment with methylphenidate at early age induces excitotoxicity, at least in part, due to inhibition of glutamate uptake probably caused by disturbances in the Na+,K+-ATPase function and/or protein damage observed in the prefrontal cortex. These findings may contribute, at least in part, to a better understanding of mechanisms involved in the biochemical and behavioral changes associated with chronic use of methylphenidate during the development of the central nervous system.

A tentativa de compreender as consequências do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato é muito importante uma vez que este psicoestimulante tem sido amplamente utilizado em crianças de idade pré-escolar. Além disso, pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações persistentes no comportamento e no funcionamento neuronal associada à sua utilização. Neste estudo, nós inicialmente investigamos o efeito do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato sobre o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano. Além disso, foram também avaliados a homeostase glutamatérgica, a Na+,K+-ATPase e o equilíbrio redox no córtex pré-frontal de ratos jovens. Ratos Wistar receberam injeções intraperitoneais de metilfenidato (2,0 mg/kg) ou um volume equivalente de solução salina 0,9% (controles), uma vez por dia, do 15º ao 45º dia de vida. Vinte e quatro horas após a última administração de metilfenidato, os animais foram decapitados e o líquido cefalorraquidiano e o córtex pré-frontal foram obtidos e processados conforme o protocolo para cada uma das análises. Os resultados mostraram que o metilfenidato alterou o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano, aumentando os níveis de glutamato. A captação de glutamato foi diminuída pelo tratamento crônico com metilfenidato, mas o conteúdo dos transportadores, GLAST e GLT-1, não foram alterados por esse tratamento. A atividade e o imunoconteúdo das subunidades catalíticas (α1, α2 e α3) da Na+,K+-ATPase foram diminuídos em córtex pré-frontal de ratos submetidos ao metilfenidato. Alterações na expressão gênica das subunidades α1 e α2 da Na+,K+-ATPase também foram observadas. O conteúdo de sulfidrilas, um marcador inversamente correlacionado com dano proteíco, foi diminuído. A atividade da CAT foi aumentada e a razão SOD/CAT foi diminuída em córtex pré-frontal de ratos. Os demais parâmetros avaliados não apresentaram diferenças significativas quando comparado aos controles. Os nossos resultados, tomados em conjunto, sugerem que o tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato promove excitotoxicidade devido, pelo menos em parte, à inibição da captação de glutamato provavelmente causada por perturbações na função da Na+,K+-ATPase e/ou pelo dano à proteína observados no córtex pré-frontal. Esses achados podem contribuir, pelo menos em parte, para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações bioquímicas e comportamentais associadas ao uso crônico de metilfenidato durante o desenvolvimento do sistema nervoso central. / Understanding the consequences of chronic treatment with methylphenidate is very important since this psychostimulant is extensively in preschool age children. Additionaly to this, little is known about the mechanisms involved in persistent changes in behavior and neuronal function related with use of methylphenidate. In this study, we initially investigate the effect of chronic treatment with methylphenidate in juvenile rats on the amino acids profile in cerebrospinal fluid, as well as on glutamatergic homeostasis, Na+,K+-ATPase function and redox balance in prefrontal cortex. Wistar rats at early age received intraperitoneal injections of methylphenidate (2.0 mg/kg) or an equivalent volume of 0.9% saline solution (controls), once a day, from the 15th to the 45th day of life. Twenty-four hours after the last administration of methylphenidate, the animals were decapitated and the cerebrospinal fluid and the prefrontal cortex were obtained and processed according to the protocol for each analysis. Our results showed that methylphenidate altered amino acid profile in cerebrospinal fluid, increasing the levels of glutamate. In the prefrontal cortex, methylphenidate administration was able to decrease the glutamate uptake, with no changes in GLAST and GLT-1; and the activity and immunocontent of catalytic subunits (α1, α2 and α3) of Na+,K+-ATPase. We also observe changes in α1 and α2 gene expression of catalytic α subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase, decrease in sulfhydryl content, CAT activity and SOD/CAT ratio in juvenile rat prefrontal cortex treated with methylphenidate. Taken together, our results suggest that chronic treatment with methylphenidate at early age induces excitotoxicity, at least in part, due to inhibition of glutamate uptake probably caused by disturbances in the Na+,K+-ATPase function and/or protein damage observed in the prefrontal cortex. These findings may contribute, at least in part, to a better understanding of mechanisms involved in the biochemical and behavioral changes associated with chronic use of methylphenidate during the development of the central nervous system.