The Sun’s corona expands outward, populating the solar system with plasma. This plasma is known as the solar wind. The solar wind carries with it the Sun’s magnetic field, which is also known as the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF). The resulting configuration of the IMF creates a current sheet at solar equatorial latitudes, which the Earth crosses as it orbits the Sun. When the Earth is on one side of the current sheet it is in a sector where the IMF is directed largely away from or toward the Sun. On the other side of the current sheet the IMF is in opposite direction. The crossing of the current sheet is known as a sector boundary crossing (SBC). The solar wind and IMF properties change significantly near the current sheet, and this affects the Earth’s ionosphere. The Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) high frequency (HF) radar data rates from 2001-2011 were examined using several techniques: a superposed epoch analysis, a fast fourier transform (FFT) analysis, and a cross–correlation analysis. Data from multiple instruments were analyzed in this study. These include the solar wind and IMF data from spacecraft, observations of charged particles precipitating into the Earth’s ionosphere, echoes from ground–based SuperDARN radars, and data from gound–based neutron monitors that detect galactic cosmic rays. Solar wind and IMF properties change significantly across a sector boundary. An increase in the IMF magnitude of about 30% occurs on the day of the SBC, and the IMF returns to pre–crossing values over the next two days. There is a decrease in the solar wind speed of about 15% the day before and the day of the SBC, and the solar wind density doubles at the time of the SBC. The polarity of the SBC does not appear to affect the solar wind and IMF. A peak in the data rate of SuperDARN echoes from both the ionosphere and ground occurs within one day of the SBC, though the variability of these data is quite large. The hemispherical power, which is an estimation of the electron energy flux precipitating into the ionosphere derived from satellite observations, increases following a SBC. Satellite particle data also revealed that the equatorward auroral oval boundary moves equatorward following a SBC. The cosmic ray counts at the Earth’s surface appear to be unaffected by the SBC. The solar wind and ionosphere data sets exhibited strong periodicities, and these were harmonics of the synodic rotational period of the Sun (approximately 27 days). Common periodicities observed were 27 days, 13.5 days, 9 days, 6.75 days and 5.4 days. There was a dominant 9–day periodicity observed in the solar wind and ionospheric data from 2005–2008, but was not observed in the solar 10.7 cm wavelength electromagnetic flux. The 9-day periodicity in the solar wind during this period has been linked to three persistent features on the Sun that produced corotating high–speed streams, or areas of fast solar wind. The parameters whose change did not depend on the polarity of the SBC had periodicities that were half that of the SBCs. From the cross–correlation analysis some relationships between the data sets became evident. For periods of high solar wind speed there were low SuperDARN data rates, and vice versa. The solar wind speed and hemispherical power were found to be well correlated, while the hemispherical power and the SuperDARN scatter occurrence were found to be anticorrelated. The solar wind changes appear to be affecting the state of the ionosphere, likely through particle precipitation. The SuperDARN scatter occurrence has been shown in past studies to be most greatly affected by changes in the electron density profile of the ionosphere, which can be influenced by changes in particle precipitation. These results demonstrate a link between the solar wind and the state of the ionosphere.

The original objectives of this thesis were to use the new PolarDARN radars to study the convection patterns at high latitudes and to attempt to explain them in terms of reconnection. Because the IMF is important in reconnection, studies of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) components Bx, By and Bz were done. The study showed that <|Bz|> was lower by 21.5% than <|By|> from Jan. 2006 to Dec. 2008, so By was expected to play an important role in reconnection. The IMF, spiral angle, and the amount of warping of the solar magnetic field in interplanetary space decreased slightly during this 36-month period. The decrease in IMF was a more sensitive indicator of the solar minimum than the decrease in the 10.7 cm solar microwave flux.<p> A solar magnetic sector boundary study from the Jan 1, 2007 Dec 31, 2008 interval showed the occurrence of four or two sectors in a synodic solar rotation cycle. A sector boundary crossing frequently takes place in less than 3 hours. The transition from four sectors to two sectors is surprisingly smooth, in that no interruption in the 27-day synodic period occurs. A superposed epoch analysis of solar wind speed near sector boundary crossings showed a speed minimum about half a day before the crossing, and a maximum about two days after the crossing. The standard deviation reached a minimum at about the same time as the velocity. The sector boundary study also showed that, since Dec. 2007, there were six roughly 27-day synodic solar rotation cycles near spring equinox when away field dominated, and that the following seven 27-day cycles close to the autumnal equinox were dominated by toward field. This is consistent with the quasi-sinusoidal annual magnetic sector polarity oscillations that occur for about three years during solar minimum. These oscillations are due to the mainly dipolar magnetic field which is roughly aligned with the Suns axis, tilted 7.25° from the normal to the ecliptic plane. The three-year oscillation for the present minimum between Solar Cycles 23 and 24 appeared to begin in Dec. 2007. For the past four solar minima, an El Nino event has occurred during the last of the three oscillations, and the El Nino and sinusoidal magnetic oscillation ended together. The new solar cycle began about 6 months before that. During the past eight years, a new 3D topological null-separator formulation of magnetic reconnection and its effect on convection has been led by Dr. M. Watanabe in ISAS at the University of Saskatchewan. This formulation includes two types of interchange reconnection (Russell and Tanaka) as well as the traditional Dungey reconnection. For conditions when the IMF clock angle was within 30° of a Bz+ dominant convection, the new reconnection model shows that the convection can be driven strictly by the two types of interchange reconnection. The model predicts the existence of a reciprocal cell on closed field lines and an interchange merging cell surrounding an interior lobe cell. The construction of the PolarDARN radars at Rankin Inlet and Inuvik, completed in December, 2007, allowed polar cap convection to be measured for predominantly Bz+ conditions. The existence of the two predicted features was confirmed. This also required that satellite data be analyzed to determine the location of the open-closed-field-line-boundary (OCFLB). Several PolarDARN studies are represented to show convection for different IMF clock angles and seasons.

平成24年度国立極地研究所研究集会「地上多点観測データの総合解析による超高層大気研究会」, 2012/08/10, 国立極地研究所（東京都）

The Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) is an international collaboration of researchers interested in Earth's near-space plasma environment. This group uses high frequency (HF) radars and backscatter from magnetic field-aligned plasma irregularities to study space weather manifested in the Earth's magnetosphere and ionosphere. Space weather impacts many technological systems including Global Positioning System (GPS), spacecraft orbits, power distribution, surveillance radar, HF communications and transpolar aviation. This thesis explores, in detail, the techniques and challenges of constructing, testing, and operating a newly designed SuperDARN HF radar. In modern times, the use of such frequencies for radar is limited to very specific applications and thus the topics presented are not common place. A new antenna design, the twin terminated folded dipole (TTFD), is analyzed along with the modeling results for several proposed and constructed phased arrays for this design. Finally, an initial radiation pattern measurement for the TTFD is presented and notes on how a similar measurement might be conducted on a TTFD phased array. / Master of Science

This thesis has two major objectives. The first objective is to investigate the seasonal and diurnal variations in occurrence of HF coherent echoes. We assess F-region echo occurrence rates for the PolarDARN HF radars at Inuvik (INV) and Rankin Inlet (RKN) and the auroral zone SuperDARN radars at Saskatoon (SAS) and Prince George (PGR) for the period of 2007-2010. We show that the INV and RKN PolarDARN radars show comparable rates of echo occurrence all the time and they detect 1.5-2.5 times more echoes through ½-hop propagation mode (MLATs=80°-85°) than the SAS and PGR SuperDARN radars through 1½-hope propagation mode (MLATs=75°-80°). For all four radars, the winter occurrence rates are about ~2 times higher than the summer rates. For observations in the dusk, midnight and dawn sectors, equinoctial maxima are evident. The pattern of echo occurrence in terms of MLT/season is about the same for all radars with clear maxima near noon during winters and summers and enhanced (as compared to other time of the day) occurrence rates during equinoctial dusk and dawn hours. Additionally, to investigate the effect of solar cycle on occurrence of F-region echoes, we consider the near noon and near midnight echo occurrence rates for the Saskatoon radar over the period of 1994-2010. We show that there is a strong, by a factor of ~10, increase in SAS night-side echo occurrence towards solar maximum. The effect does not exist for the dayside echoes; moreover, a decrease in number of echoes, by a factor of ~2, was discovered for the declining phase of the solar cycle. The second objective is to evaluate the electron density and the electric field as factors controlling the occurrence of F-region echoes. We use observations of these two ionospheric parameters measured by CADI ionosonde and RKN observations of echo occurrence rates over Resolute Bay (MLAT=83°). We show that there is a correlation in changes of echo occurrence and electron density changes for 3 years of radar-ionosonde joint operation (2008-2010). The comparison of radar-ionosonde data shows that the enhanced echo occurrence at near noon hours during summer months correlate with the enhanced electric field during these periods.

In this thesis, the relationship between several high-latitude phenomena and the ionospheric conductance in both hemispheres is studied theoretically and experimentally. </p>Theoretically, the high-latitude electrodynamics is studied by considering currents in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system resulting from the ionospheric sheet current redistribution between the conjugate ionospheres. It is shown that strong flow between the conjugate ionospheres, the interhemispheric currents (IHC), can be set up if the conductance distribution is asymmetric in the conjugate ionospheric regions. Such conditions are typical for solstices owing to the differences in the solar illumination. Analytical and numerical modeling shows that IHCs can appear in the regions of strong conductance gradient, more specifically around the solar terminator line, and that the intensity of the IHCs can be comparable to the intensity of the well known Region 1/Region 2 currents. The effect of IHC excitation on observable magnetic perturbations on the ground is investigated. It is shown that in the vicinity of the solar terminator line, the pattern of magnetic perturbation can be such that an apparent equivalent current vortex can be detected. In addition, strong conductance gradients are shown to affect significantly the quality of the ionospheric plasma flow estimates from the ground-based magnetometer data. </p>Experimentally, the effect of the nightside ionospheric conductance on occurrence of substorms, global storm sudden commencement and radar auroras is investigated. To characterize substorm occurrence, new parameters, the derivatives of the classical AE and AO indices, are introduced. It is shown that the seasonal and diurnal variations of these parameters are controlled by the total nightside ionospheric conductance in the conjugate regions. The substorm onsets preferentially occur at low levels of the total conductance, which is consistent with the idea of the substorm triggering through the magnetosphere-ionosphere feedback instability. It is hypothesized that the total conductance affects the global storm onsets as well. To check this idea, the 33-year sudden storm commencement (SSC) data are considered. The semiannual, annual, semidiurnal, and diurnal variations in the SSC occurrence rate are found to be significant and these components exhibit a strong relationship with the total conductance of the high-latitude ionospheres. Finally, the SuperDARN midnight echo occurrence is shown to correlate, for some radars, with the total conductance minima and presumably with electric field maxima, which is consistent with general expectation that the F-region irregularities occur preferentially during times of enhanced electric fields. The gradients of the high-latitude conductance can also lead to significant errors in the plasma convection estimates from the ground-based magnetometers, and to investigate this effect a statistical assessment of the difference between the true plasma convection (SuperDARN) and the magnetometer-inferred equivalent convection direction is performed. The largest differences are found for the transition region between the dark and sunlit ionospheres and in the midnight sector where strong conductance gradients are expected due to particle precipitation. Consideration of regular conductance gradients due to solar illumination improves the agreement between the radar and magnetometer data. Finally, an attempt is made to demonstrate the effects of conductance upon the properties of traveling convection vortices (TCVs). Joint SuperDARN and magnetometer data reveal that there is resemblance between the magnetometer and radar inferred TCV images on a scale of thousands of kilometers. However, on a smaller scale of hundreds of kilometers, significant differences are observed.

In this thesis, the relationship between several high-latitude phenomena and the ionospheric conductance in both hemispheres is studied theoretically and experimentally. </p>Theoretically, the high-latitude electrodynamics is studied by considering currents in the magnetosphere-ionosphere system resulting from the ionospheric sheet current redistribution between the conjugate ionospheres. It is shown that strong flow between the conjugate ionospheres, the interhemispheric currents (IHC), can be set up if the conductance distribution is asymmetric in the conjugate ionospheric regions. Such conditions are typical for solstices owing to the differences in the solar illumination. Analytical and numerical modeling shows that IHCs can appear in the regions of strong conductance gradient, more specifically around the solar terminator line, and that the intensity of the IHCs can be comparable to the intensity of the well known Region 1/Region 2 currents. The effect of IHC excitation on observable magnetic perturbations on the ground is investigated. It is shown that in the vicinity of the solar terminator line, the pattern of magnetic perturbation can be such that an apparent equivalent current vortex can be detected. In addition, strong conductance gradients are shown to affect significantly the quality of the ionospheric plasma flow estimates from the ground-based magnetometer data. </p>Experimentally, the effect of the nightside ionospheric conductance on occurrence of substorms, global storm sudden commencement and radar auroras is investigated. To characterize substorm occurrence, new parameters, the derivatives of the classical AE and AO indices, are introduced. It is shown that the seasonal and diurnal variations of these parameters are controlled by the total nightside ionospheric conductance in the conjugate regions. The substorm onsets preferentially occur at low levels of the total conductance, which is consistent with the idea of the substorm triggering through the magnetosphere-ionosphere feedback instability. It is hypothesized that the total conductance affects the global storm onsets as well. To check this idea, the 33-year sudden storm commencement (SSC) data are considered. The semiannual, annual, semidiurnal, and diurnal variations in the SSC occurrence rate are found to be significant and these components exhibit a strong relationship with the total conductance of the high-latitude ionospheres. Finally, the SuperDARN midnight echo occurrence is shown to correlate, for some radars, with the total conductance minima and presumably with electric field maxima, which is consistent with general expectation that the F-region irregularities occur preferentially during times of enhanced electric fields. The gradients of the high-latitude conductance can also lead to significant errors in the plasma convection estimates from the ground-based magnetometers, and to investigate this effect a statistical assessment of the difference between the true plasma convection (SuperDARN) and the magnetometer-inferred equivalent convection direction is performed. The largest differences are found for the transition region between the dark and sunlit ionospheres and in the midnight sector where strong conductance gradients are expected due to particle precipitation. Consideration of regular conductance gradients due to solar illumination improves the agreement between the radar and magnetometer data. Finally, an attempt is made to demonstrate the effects of conductance upon the properties of traveling convection vortices (TCVs). Joint SuperDARN and magnetometer data reveal that there is resemblance between the magnetometer and radar inferred TCV images on a scale of thousands of kilometers. However, on a smaller scale of hundreds of kilometers, significant differences are observed.

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