The research discussed in this thesis was the first to analyse the use of the Appropriate Adult for mentally disordered adult suspects in the police station. The role of the Appropriate Adult raises questions about how, and under what circumstances should mentally disordered suspects be detained and interviewed in the police station? The Appropriate Adult is the only special protection provided for mentally disordered suspects during their detention and interrogation. The Appropriate Adult's role and function is defined in Code C of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. The role of the Appropriate Adult is to ensure that the suspect's rights are respected, the suspect understands the procedures involved and that the police adhere to the Code, thereby minimising the risk of the police obtaining unreliable evidence from the suspect e. g. false confessions. The data in this thesis shows that the use of the Appropriate Adult is rarely used. Out of the study of 20.805 custody records in four police stations in three police areas during 1992, it was found that an Appropriate Adult was used for only 38 mentally disordered adult suspects. The research also showed that at least a further 448 mentally vulnerable suspects should have had an Appropriate Adult called for them. Some of the reasons why the Appropriate Adult protection is neglected are examined and in so doing many socio/legal questions are raised such as: false confessions, miscarriages of justice, the amendment to the `right to silence, ' confidentiality, the roles of the custody officer, solicitors and police surgeons, and last but not least, the role and function of the Appropriate Adult. While there is growing concern about the ability of persons asked to act as Appropriate Adults the thesis includes a case study of a volunteer Appropriate Adult Scheme that provides some answers to the many issues raised and points the way to future development of those suspects detained and interviewed in the police station.

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Det övergripande syftet med denna uppsats har varit att genomföra en kvalitativ studie som belyser och diskuterar informationsinsamlande och konfrontativa förhörstekniker vid förhör med misstänkta gärningspersoner. En tematisk analys av förhör med misstänkta har genomförts för att identifiera uttalanden och uttryck som tyder på användandet av respektive förhörsstrategi. Resultaten har tolkats och diskuterats utifrån tidigare forskning och de kognitionspsykologiska områden som berör berättande, minnen och konfirmationsbias. Resultaten har visat att ett informationsinsamlande respektive konfrontativt förhållningssätt kan visa sig genom en mängd olika uttryck och uttalanden. Resultaten har också visat att det till viss del förekommit starkt konfrontativa inslag i några av de analyserade förhören. Utifrån tidigare forskning, de kognitionspsykologiska perspektiven och resultaten från den tematiska analysen är den huvudsakliga slutsatsen att det behövs fler och mer omfattande svenska studier av hur förhör med misstänkta genomförs i praktiken. / Information or confrontation - a theme-based analysis of police interviewing with criminal suspects The purpose of this paper has been to execute a qualitative study to highlight and discuss information-gathering and confrontational approaches in interviewing criminal suspects. A theme-based analysis was implemented to identify statements and expressions that suggests the use of either interrogation strategy. The results have been interpreted and discussed based on previous research and cognitive psychology areas affecting human storytelling, memories and confirmation bias. The results have shown that the information-gathering and confrontational approach may be shown through a variety of expressions and statements. The results have also shown that it to some extent have been highly confrontational elements in some of the analyzed interrogations. Based on previous research, the cognitive psychological perspectives and the results from the theme-based analysis the main conclusion is that quantitatively and extensively more studies of how the interrogation of criminal suspects is implemented in practice, especially in a Swedish context, is needed.

<p>The police interview is one of the most important investigative tools that law enforcement has close at hand, and police interview methods have changed during the twentieth century. A good police interview is conducted in the frame of the law, is governed by the interview goal, and is influenced by facilitating factors that may affect the elicited report. The present doctoral dissertation focuses on police interviews in cases of very serious crimes of violence and sexual offences. Results reveal crime victims’ and perpetrators’ experiences of being interviewed and police officers’ attitudes towards conducting interviews related to traumatizing crimes. Study 1 revealed that when police officers interviewed <i>murderers</i> and <i>sexual offenders</i>, the interviewees perceived attitudes characterized by either <i>dominance</i> or <i>humanity</i>. Police interviews marked by dominance and suspects’ responses of <i>anxiety</i> were mainly associated with a higher proportion of denials, whereas an approach marked by humanity, and responses of being <i>respected</i> were significantly associated with admissions. In line with Study 1, the victims of rape and aggravated assault in Study 2 also revealed the experience of two police interview styles, where an interviewing style marked by <i>dominance </i>and responses of <i>anxiety</i> was significantly associated with crime victims’ omissions of information. Moreover, a <i>humanitarian</i> interviewing style, and crime victims’ feelings of being <i>respected</i> and <i>co-operative,</i> was significantly related to crime victims providing all information from painful events. Special squad police officers’ attitudes towards<i> interviewing</i> <i>crime victims</i>, in Study 3, also showed a <i>humanitarian</i> approach and <i>two dominant approaches</i>, one affective and the other refusing. The attitude towards <i>interviewing suspects</i> of crimes in focus revealed <i>humanitarian</i> and <i>dominant</i> interviewing attitudes, and an approach marked by <i>kindness</i>. The present thesis shows that, during their entire career, an overwhelming majority of the special squad police officers have experienced stressful events during patrol as well as investigative duty. Results show that symptoms from stressful event exposures and coping mechanisms are associated with negative attitudes towards interviewing suspects and supportive attitudes towards crime victim interviews. Thus, experiences from stressful exposures may automatically activate ego-defensive functions that automatically generate dominant attitudes. Moreover, it is important to offer police officers who have been exposed to stressful events the opportunity to work through their experiences, for example, through debriefing procedures. After debriefings, police officers are better prepared to meet crime victims and suspects and, through conscious closed-loop processes, to conduct police interviews without awaking ego-defensive functions. </p>

The police interview is one of the most important investigative tools that law enforcement has close at hand, and police interview methods have changed during the twentieth century. A good police interview is conducted in the frame of the law, is governed by the interview goal, and is influenced by facilitating factors that may affect the elicited report. The present doctoral dissertation focuses on police interviews in cases of very serious crimes of violence and sexual offences. Results reveal crime victims’ and perpetrators’ experiences of being interviewed and police officers’ attitudes towards conducting interviews related to traumatizing crimes. Study 1 revealed that when police officers interviewed murderers and sexual offenders, the interviewees perceived attitudes characterized by either dominance or humanity. Police interviews marked by dominance and suspects’ responses of anxiety were mainly associated with a higher proportion of denials, whereas an approach marked by humanity, and responses of being respected were significantly associated with admissions. In line with Study 1, the victims of rape and aggravated assault in Study 2 also revealed the experience of two police interview styles, where an interviewing style marked by dominance and responses of anxiety was significantly associated with crime victims’ omissions of information. Moreover, a humanitarian interviewing style, and crime victims’ feelings of being respected and co-operative, was significantly related to crime victims providing all information from painful events. Special squad police officers’ attitudes towards interviewing crime victims, in Study 3, also showed a humanitarian approach and two dominant approaches, one affective and the other refusing. The attitude towards interviewing suspects of crimes in focus revealed humanitarian and dominant interviewing attitudes, and an approach marked by kindness. The present thesis shows that, during their entire career, an overwhelming majority of the special squad police officers have experienced stressful events during patrol as well as investigative duty. Results show that symptoms from stressful event exposures and coping mechanisms are associated with negative attitudes towards interviewing suspects and supportive attitudes towards crime victim interviews. Thus, experiences from stressful exposures may automatically activate ego-defensive functions that automatically generate dominant attitudes. Moreover, it is important to offer police officers who have been exposed to stressful events the opportunity to work through their experiences, for example, through debriefing procedures. After debriefings, police officers are better prepared to meet crime victims and suspects and, through conscious closed-loop processes, to conduct police interviews without awaking ego-defensive functions.

The police interview is one of the most important investigative tools that law enforcement has close at hand, and police interview methods have changed during the twentieth century. A good police interview is conducted in the frame of the law, is governed by the interview goal, and is influenced by facilitating factors that may affect the elicited report. The present doctoral dissertation focuses on police interviews in cases of very serious crimes of violence and sexual offences. Results reveal crime victims’ and perpetrators’ experiences of being interviewed and police officers’ attitudes towards conducting interviews related to traumatizing crimes. Study 1 revealed that when police officers interviewed murderers and sexual offenders, the interviewees perceived attitudes characterized by either dominance or humanity. Police interviews marked by dominance and suspects’ responses of anxiety were mainly associated with a higher proportion of denials, whereas an approach marked by humanity, and responses of being respected were significantly associated with admissions. In line with Study 1, the victims of rape and aggravated assault in Study 2 also revealed the experience of two police interview styles, where an interviewing style marked by dominance and responses of anxiety was significantly associated with crime victims’ omissions of information. Moreover, a humanitarian interviewing style, and crime victims’ feelings of being respected and co-operative, was significantly related to crime victims providing all information from painful events. Special squad police officers’ attitudes towards interviewing crime victims, in Study 3, also showed a humanitarian approach and two dominant approaches, one affective and the other refusing. The attitude towards interviewing suspects of crimes in focus revealed humanitarian and dominant interviewing attitudes, and an approach marked by kindness. The present thesis shows that, during their entire career, an overwhelming majority of the special squad police officers have experienced stressful events during patrol as well as investigative duty. Results show that symptoms from stressful event exposures and coping mechanisms are associated with negative attitudes towards interviewing suspects and supportive attitudes towards crime victim interviews. Thus, experiences from stressful exposures may automatically activate ego-defensive functions that automatically generate dominant attitudes. Moreover, it is important to offer police officers who have been exposed to stressful events the opportunity to work through their experiences, for example, through debriefing procedures. After debriefings, police officers are better prepared to meet crime victims and suspects and, through conscious closed-loop processes, to conduct police interviews without awaking ego-defensive functions.