Motivation: The prevalence of cardiovascular dysfunction, especially hypertension, in Africans has increased dramatically over the past few decades. Despite considerable in~ depth studies, cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Further escalations are predicted, especially in developing countries such as South Africa, if measures are not taken to combat the trend. Numerous cardiovascular risk factors have been investigated within African-Americans as well as Caucasians. However, it is not known to what extent African-Americans and Africans from South Africa are comparable. Therefore, it is essential to investigate risk factors and their possible contributory role in the high susceptibility of cardiovascular dysfunction in the black South African population. Aim: To investigale potential risk factors and their possible involvement and association with the high prevalence of cardiovascular dysfunction within the black South African population. Methodology: Manuscripts presented in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 made use of the data obtained from the cross-sectional SAfrEIC (The South African study regarding the influence of Sex, age and ethnicity on insulin sensitivity and Cardiovascular function) study. The study group included 756 asymptomatic, apparently healthy African men and women as well as Caucasian men and women, recruited from the North West Province, South Africa. Anthropometric and cardiovascular measurements were taken as well as their lipid profiles, fasting insulin levels, and uric acid and adiponectin levels. Independent t-tests, analyses of variance (ANOVA) and analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were used for comparison of variables between groups to determine significant differences. Partial correlations coefficients were used to show association between variables while adjusting for confounders. Multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) were performed to compare variables between the groups, whilst adjusting for relevant confounders. Stepwise multiple and single regression analyses were also used to determine and confirm the most significant associations between variables. All subjects gave informed consent in writing and the Ethics Committee of the NorthWest University approved the study, The reader is referred to the "Materials and Methods" section of Chapters 2, 3 and 4 for a more elaborate description of the subjects, study design and analytical methods used in each paper. Results and conclusions of the individual manuscripts *Results from Chapter 2 revealed significantly lower uric acid levels for African men compared to Caucasian men, Despite these lower levels. the association between uric acid and blood pressure is more pronounced within the African men. The strong positive relationship between uric acid and blood pressure might be explained by uric acid's independent relationship with vascular resistance, Uric acid also revealed a positive association with triglycerides in both the African and Caucasian men. These results suggest that uric acid per se can act as a risk factor in the development of cardiovascular dysfunction in African men, *Results from Chapter 3 showed opposing changes in insulin secretion for African men and Caucasian men with increasing age. Whereas insulin levels increased in Caucasian men with progressive age, insulin levels in African men tended to decrease with ageing. Additionally, the insulin-blood pressure relationship within African men revealed opposite results as to what was expected. While the Caucasian men revealed a more positive association between insulin and blood pressure within the younger individuals, older individuals revealed a negative association between insulin and blood pressure, This implies that the vasoconstrictory actions of insulin seem to dominate in young individuals while the vasodilatory actions of insulin take over in older individuals, The turnaround probably acts as a counter protective mechanism against age-related cardiovascular dysfunction. On the contrary, despite decreased insulin secretion in older African men, they exhibit a more positive association between insulin and blood pressure, whereas younger subjects showed a more negative association, These results might suggest dissociation between insulin and blood pressure, Insulin per se might, therefore, not act as a risk factor, but rather the lack of insulin-mediated vasodilatory effects as observed within younger Africans. *Results from Chapter 4 contradicted the notion found in the literature that age-related increase in adiponectin levels are due to impaired renal function. Although the results from this chapter confirmed a Significant association between renal function (estimated creatinine clearance) and adiponectin levels a multiple regression model revealed insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) as the major contributor to adiponectin levels. Adiponectin levels increased with progressive ageing only in the Africans. No such change was observed for the Caucasians. This might be due to development of functional adiponectin resistance or perhaps due to a decline in pancreatic cell mass with ageing. In conclusion, the cardiovascular profile of Africans seems to be more detrimentally affected compared to Caucasians. Results from this study have elucidated on the associations and potential involvement of possible risk factors including, uric acid, insulin, C-peptide, as well as adiponectin, with regards to the high prevalence of cardiovascular dysfunction within the black South African population. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

AIM Poor iron status and under–nutrition among children are of concern not only in South Africa but worldwide. Both independent and combined associations between poor iron status, under–nutrition and cognitive development and function have been investigated. This mini–dissertation investigated possible associations between iron status indicators, anthropometric nutritional status and cognitive performance in the Beverage Fortified with Micronutrients (BeForMi) study population (black South African children aged 6–11 years in the North–West province of South Africa). METHODS The study was cross–sectional and based on the BeForMi study baseline data. Primary school children (n = 414) with the highest serum transferrin receptor (STR) and zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP) levels were included. Anthropometric z–scores - BMI–for–age (BAZ), height–for–age (HAZ), and weight–for–age (WAZ) - and iron status indicators - haemoglobin (Hb), serum ferritin (SF), STR and ZnPP - were determined. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second edition (KABC–II) was used to generate cognitive scores. RESULTS Fourteen percent of children were underweight (WAZ <= 2 SDs), 12.8% stunted (HAZ <= 2 SDs) and 8.4% wasted (BAZ <= 2 SDs). Of the children, 7.1% were anaemic (Hb < 11.5 g/dL), 13% iron depleted (Hb < 11.5 g/dL and SF < 12 ug/L) and 2.7% had iron deficiency anaemia (Hb < 11.5 g/dL and SF < 12 ug/L). Low iron stores (SF < 12 ug/L) were observed in 15.7% of the children. Positive correlations were found between SF and WAZ (r = 0.1, p = 0.047), Hb and HAZ (r = 0.13, p = 0.007) and WAZ (r = 0.13, p = 0.009). Positive correlations with small effect sizes were observed between some cognitive scores and z–scores (p < 0.05, r–value range 0.10 – 0.24). Negative correlations with small effect sizes were observed for the subtests Triangles and Rover (both subtests on simultaneous processing) with Hb (p = 0.008, r = –0.13) and SF (p = 0.04, r = –0.1) respectively. Higher HAZ, WAZ and education level of the head of household were all significantly associated with the likelihood that a child would fall within the upper quartile of Hb values in our study group (p = 0.036, p = 0.032 and p = 0.036 respectively). CONCLUSION The results suggested that under–nutrition was positively associated with poor iron status and lower cognitive scores in this study population. Further research, investigating specific effects of poor iron status at different stages of growth and the relationship with cognitive function later in life may help explain the negative correlations observed between current iron status indicators and cognitive scores. / Thesis (M.Sc (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Adolescence is a phase that includes substantial physical, social and psychological changes (Department of Health, 1999) and is considered to be a psychologically turbulent and emotional period in a person’s life (Strong, De Vault, Satad & Yarber, 2001) that can also have an influence o n parent–child relationships. The purpose of this stud y is to specifically focus on parent– adolescent relationships of African female adolescents as research and literature is limited regarding African female adolescent s’ experience of parent–adolescent relationships and the dynamics involve d. Little is known of how African female adolescents experience the relationship they have with their parents and what their needs are regarding these relationshi.p s The objectives of this studya re to explore and describe African female adolescents’ experience of parent–adolescent relationships, and to explore aspects of African female adolescents’ relationships with their parents that may influence t heir sense of well–being. Thirty and thirty–two African female adolescents participated voluntarily in graphic family sculpting and focus group interviews respectively. Six focus group interviews at Randfontein High School, Gauteng, provided rich data on African female adolescents’ experience of parentadolescent relationships and aspects of the relationships that influence their sense of wellbeing. The findings suggest that the majority of the participants experience a more positive relationship with their mothesr than with their fathesr, and that positive and negative aspects in their relationships with their parents is perceived to influence their well–being. The importance of communication was a very prominent theme in the focus group discussions. With regard to graphic family sculpting, the findings also suggest that the mothers have a more prominent and positive role and participants experience their fathers as less involved. / Thesis (M.A. (Research Psyvhology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Motivation: The prevalence of cardiovascular dysfunction, especially hypertension, in Africans has increased dramatically over the past few decades. Despite considerable in~ depth studies, cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Further escalations are predicted, especially in developing countries such as South Africa, if measures are not taken to combat the trend. Numerous cardiovascular risk factors have been investigated within African-Americans as well as Caucasians. However, it is not known to what extent African-Americans and Africans from South Africa are comparable. Therefore, it is essential to investigate risk factors and their possible contributory role in the high susceptibility of cardiovascular dysfunction in the black South African population. Aim: To investigale potential risk factors and their possible involvement and association with the high prevalence of cardiovascular dysfunction within the black South African population. Methodology: Manuscripts presented in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 made use of the data obtained from the cross-sectional SAfrEIC (The South African study regarding the influence of Sex, age and ethnicity on insulin sensitivity and Cardiovascular function) study. The study group included 756 asymptomatic, apparently healthy African men and women as well as Caucasian men and women, recruited from the North West Province, South Africa. Anthropometric and cardiovascular measurements were taken as well as their lipid profiles, fasting insulin levels, and uric acid and adiponectin levels. Independent t-tests, analyses of variance (ANOVA) and analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were used for comparison of variables between groups to determine significant differences. Partial correlations coefficients were used to show association between variables while adjusting for confounders. Multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) were performed to compare variables between the groups, whilst adjusting for relevant confounders. Stepwise multiple and single regression analyses were also used to determine and confirm the most significant associations between variables. All subjects gave informed consent in writing and the Ethics Committee of the NorthWest University approved the study, The reader is referred to the "Materials and Methods" section of Chapters 2, 3 and 4 for a more elaborate description of the subjects, study design and analytical methods used in each paper. Results and conclusions of the individual manuscripts *Results from Chapter 2 revealed significantly lower uric acid levels for African men compared to Caucasian men, Despite these lower levels. the association between uric acid and blood pressure is more pronounced within the African men. The strong positive relationship between uric acid and blood pressure might be explained by uric acid's independent relationship with vascular resistance, Uric acid also revealed a positive association with triglycerides in both the African and Caucasian men. These results suggest that uric acid per se can act as a risk factor in the development of cardiovascular dysfunction in African men, *Results from Chapter 3 showed opposing changes in insulin secretion for African men and Caucasian men with increasing age. Whereas insulin levels increased in Caucasian men with progressive age, insulin levels in African men tended to decrease with ageing. Additionally, the insulin-blood pressure relationship within African men revealed opposite results as to what was expected. While the Caucasian men revealed a more positive association between insulin and blood pressure within the younger individuals, older individuals revealed a negative association between insulin and blood pressure, This implies that the vasoconstrictory actions of insulin seem to dominate in young individuals while the vasodilatory actions of insulin take over in older individuals, The turnaround probably acts as a counter protective mechanism against age-related cardiovascular dysfunction. On the contrary, despite decreased insulin secretion in older African men, they exhibit a more positive association between insulin and blood pressure, whereas younger subjects showed a more negative association, These results might suggest dissociation between insulin and blood pressure, Insulin per se might, therefore, not act as a risk factor, but rather the lack of insulin-mediated vasodilatory effects as observed within younger Africans. *Results from Chapter 4 contradicted the notion found in the literature that age-related increase in adiponectin levels are due to impaired renal function. Although the results from this chapter confirmed a Significant association between renal function (estimated creatinine clearance) and adiponectin levels a multiple regression model revealed insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) as the major contributor to adiponectin levels. Adiponectin levels increased with progressive ageing only in the Africans. No such change was observed for the Caucasians. This might be due to development of functional adiponectin resistance or perhaps due to a decline in pancreatic cell mass with ageing. In conclusion, the cardiovascular profile of Africans seems to be more detrimentally affected compared to Caucasians. Results from this study have elucidated on the associations and potential involvement of possible risk factors including, uric acid, insulin, C-peptide, as well as adiponectin, with regards to the high prevalence of cardiovascular dysfunction within the black South African population. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Physiology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

AIM Poor iron status and under–nutrition among children are of concern not only in South Africa but worldwide. Both independent and combined associations between poor iron status, under–nutrition and cognitive development and function have been investigated. This mini–dissertation investigated possible associations between iron status indicators, anthropometric nutritional status and cognitive performance in the Beverage Fortified with Micronutrients (BeForMi) study population (black South African children aged 6–11 years in the North–West province of South Africa). METHODS The study was cross–sectional and based on the BeForMi study baseline data. Primary school children (n = 414) with the highest serum transferrin receptor (STR) and zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP) levels were included. Anthropometric z–scores - BMI–for–age (BAZ), height–for–age (HAZ), and weight–for–age (WAZ) - and iron status indicators - haemoglobin (Hb), serum ferritin (SF), STR and ZnPP - were determined. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second edition (KABC–II) was used to generate cognitive scores. RESULTS Fourteen percent of children were underweight (WAZ <= 2 SDs), 12.8% stunted (HAZ <= 2 SDs) and 8.4% wasted (BAZ <= 2 SDs). Of the children, 7.1% were anaemic (Hb < 11.5 g/dL), 13% iron depleted (Hb < 11.5 g/dL and SF < 12 ug/L) and 2.7% had iron deficiency anaemia (Hb < 11.5 g/dL and SF < 12 ug/L). Low iron stores (SF < 12 ug/L) were observed in 15.7% of the children. Positive correlations were found between SF and WAZ (r = 0.1, p = 0.047), Hb and HAZ (r = 0.13, p = 0.007) and WAZ (r = 0.13, p = 0.009). Positive correlations with small effect sizes were observed between some cognitive scores and z–scores (p < 0.05, r–value range 0.10 – 0.24). Negative correlations with small effect sizes were observed for the subtests Triangles and Rover (both subtests on simultaneous processing) with Hb (p = 0.008, r = –0.13) and SF (p = 0.04, r = –0.1) respectively. Higher HAZ, WAZ and education level of the head of household were all significantly associated with the likelihood that a child would fall within the upper quartile of Hb values in our study group (p = 0.036, p = 0.032 and p = 0.036 respectively). CONCLUSION The results suggested that under–nutrition was positively associated with poor iron status and lower cognitive scores in this study population. Further research, investigating specific effects of poor iron status at different stages of growth and the relationship with cognitive function later in life may help explain the negative correlations observed between current iron status indicators and cognitive scores. / Thesis (M.Sc (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Various studies have highlighted the problems faced in accounting education. Some of these problems refer to the stagnating accounting curriculum, limited resources available to students from designated black empowerment groups, and the underdevelopment of skills required by practice. This study focuses specifically on the problems faced in secondary and tertiary accounting education in South Africa (SA) and the effects of these problems on practice. The first article of this study emphasises the various causes for the declining pass rate in firstyear chartered accountancy (CA) students. For this purpose, the researcher gathered information on the perceptions of first-year CA students and of lecturers involved in departments of accounting at SA universities. One of the possible causes identified is the apparent gap between school and university accounting education, especially in respect of curriculum, teaching quality and textbooks. The study revealed that students from designated black empowerment groups are facing the most problems in SA accounting education. The second article addressed the skills shortages in first-year CA trainees that practitioners have to deal with. According to the results, the majority of the participants felt that universities do not sufficiently equip students with the skills necessary to be successful in practice. The skills shortages identified included the inability of first-year trainees to determine the extent of testing needed in audits and to think independently. It also seemed as if first-year trainees lack professional communication skills and cannot sufficiently apply theory learnt at university in practice. These are only some skills with which universities are expected to equip students in order to be successful in practice. The researcher drew conclusions and made recommendations based on the information obtained from the above-mentioned two studies. / MCom (Accountancy), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Various studies have highlighted the problems faced in accounting education. Some of these problems refer to the stagnating accounting curriculum, limited resources available to students from designated black empowerment groups, and the underdevelopment of skills required by practice. This study focuses specifically on the problems faced in secondary and tertiary accounting education in South Africa (SA) and the effects of these problems on practice. The first article of this study emphasises the various causes for the declining pass rate in firstyear chartered accountancy (CA) students. For this purpose, the researcher gathered information on the perceptions of first-year CA students and of lecturers involved in departments of accounting at SA universities. One of the possible causes identified is the apparent gap between school and university accounting education, especially in respect of curriculum, teaching quality and textbooks. The study revealed that students from designated black empowerment groups are facing the most problems in SA accounting education. The second article addressed the skills shortages in first-year CA trainees that practitioners have to deal with. According to the results, the majority of the participants felt that universities do not sufficiently equip students with the skills necessary to be successful in practice. The skills shortages identified included the inability of first-year trainees to determine the extent of testing needed in audits and to think independently. It also seemed as if first-year trainees lack professional communication skills and cannot sufficiently apply theory learnt at university in practice. These are only some skills with which universities are expected to equip students in order to be successful in practice. The researcher drew conclusions and made recommendations based on the information obtained from the above-mentioned two studies. / MCom (Accountancy), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Thesis (DPhil (Political Science))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / For the sake of continued social stability in South Africa it is imperative that the country’s so-called “partial transition” is completed through a process of meaningful socio-economic transformation that addresses the consequences of its history of unequal development. Transformation can thus be viewed as one of the primary challenges in the economic and socio-political landscape in South Africa. It is the task of social sciences to contribute to the general understanding of our social reality through systematic analysis and thereby promoting effective responses to social challenges. Current literature on the transformation process in South Africa focuses almost exclusively on the country’s political transition (as a change in power relationships) and analyses of socioeconomic inequality and descriptions of the successes and failures of policy measures that have been adopted since 1994 to promote the redistribution of economic resources. Three shortcomings in current literature on and the theoretical analysis of transformation were identified, namely: (i) the apparent disregard of the status implications of the redistribution of political and economic resources, (ii) the absence of analyses that problematise the transformation process as such (and specifically the sector and industry specific initiatives initiated to promote Black Economic Empowerment), and (iii) the lack of prescriptive guidelines for the management of transformation processes. It is the primary goal of this study to develop a theoretical framework in terms of which socioeconomic transformation can be analysed. Socio-economic transformation is described as a potentially contentious process and it is shown that the institutionalised and negotiated nature of transformation in the South African context allows us to interpret it in terms of theories of social conflict. Theory from the field of conflict studies, and specifically Social Identity Theory, is used to analyse the impact of the redistribution of power and material resources on the status of social groups and the concurrent implications for inter-group relationships. The theoretical model is also used to identify specific circumstances under which the stability of social relationships can be maintained amidst the redistribution of power and resources – i.e.: circumstances in which parity of esteem is maintained through mutual acceptance of the principles that underlie the distribution of resources, power and other sources of social status. A prescriptive model for the management of conflict that satisfies these requirements is developed from the theory of conflict transformation and is presented as a model for the management of transformation. This model suggests the achievement of social justice as the desired outcome of conflict management. In the absence of a satisfactory definition of social justice in the existing theory, John Rawls’s conceptualisation of justice is suggested as an analytical elaboration of the theory. A case study, namely the negotations on the Wine Industry Charter and the transformation of a key institution in the South African wine industry, is used to illustrate how the chosen theoretical model (and specifically the theoretical assumptions regarding the need for positive self-esteem) can by used by analysts to interpret information processes. The case study is also used to illustrate how the elements of the chosen prescriptive model for the management of transformation has been utilised. The study confirms the fact that the chosen theoretical model for the management of transformation was utilised in the formal transformation process in the wine industry (and specifically in the successful development of the Wine Industry Charter and the negotiations regarding the structure and nature of the South African Wine Council).

INTRODUCTION AND AIM - Cardiovascular disease is globally a major risk factor for morbidity and mortality. It is caused by various factors, one of which is an abnormal haemostatic process. Fibrinogen is a haemostatic factor that is considered to be an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Elevated fibrinogen can be caused by environmental and genetic factors which increase the risk of the occurrence of thrombosis. The fibrinogen y' chain, which is one of the three chains of fibrinogen, has two different variants, the yA and y’. The presence of the fibrinogen y’ chain has been associated with thrombotic disorders. Many studies have investigated the fibrinogen variables in Caucasian individuals, but only a few such studies have been conducted on non-Caucasian individuals. The genetic diversity of ethnic groups differs and could cause differences in the fibrinogen variables between these groups. Fibrinogen is known to increase with age; therefore to explain changes over time in fibrinogen concentrations it was also important to investigate whether genetic determinants and possible gene–environment interactions influenced fibrinogen over time. In this study the main aim was to determine the change in the fibrinogen variables over a five-year period within a black South African cohort subdivided according to genotypes associated with fibrinogen variables, and to determine whether the observed changes were modulated by environmental factors. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS - Data [baseline (n=2010) and follow-up (n=1288)] were collected in the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study during 2005 and 2010 from apparently healthy black men and women aged between 35 and 65 years and residing in rural or urban settlements. Experimental methods included analysis of fibrinogen and fibrinogen y’ concentrations, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and determination of environmental factors associated with the fibrinogen variables. RESULTS - The fibrinogen variables increased significantly from 2005 to 2010 in both the rural and urban participants, as well as in both men and women. The major environmental factors that affected the fibrinogen variables were C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), body mass index (BMI), glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), age, blood lipids, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tobacco use. Fibrinogen increased consistently from 2005 to 2010 in the respective genotypes of all SNPs analysed, except in the FGG 9340 T>C homozygous mutant carriers. Fibrinogen y’ also increased in general in most genotypes from 2005 to 2010, except in the FGG 10034 C>T mutant allele carriers, where a decrease was observed. It was determined that CRP was the only environmental factor that influenced the change in fibrinogen over time and that FGG 10034 C>T was the only SNP that influenced the change in fibrinogen y’ over the five years. Four gene–environment interactions also influenced fibrinogen on a cross-sectional level, i.e. FGA 2224 G>A with age, FGB Arg448Lys with HIV status, FGB 1643 C>T with urbanisation and FGB 1038 G>A with HbA1c. Only the FGG 9340 T>C with HbA1c interaction was found to predict change in fibrinogen concentrations over the five years. CONCLUSION - Both environmental and genetic factors significantly influenced the fibrinogen variables cross-sectionally as well as prospectively. It was clear that the influence of the environmental factors was mediated by genetic polymorphisms and vice versa, as can be seen by the gene–environment interactions found in this study. An important finding of this study was that the interaction of HbA1c with two SNPs on fibrinogen variables may explain the known inconsistent relationship found between fibrinogen concentrations and diabetes. / MSc (Dietetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

INTRODUCTION AND AIM - Cardiovascular disease is globally a major risk factor for morbidity and mortality. It is caused by various factors, one of which is an abnormal haemostatic process. Fibrinogen is a haemostatic factor that is considered to be an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Elevated fibrinogen can be caused by environmental and genetic factors which increase the risk of the occurrence of thrombosis. The fibrinogen y' chain, which is one of the three chains of fibrinogen, has two different variants, the yA and y’. The presence of the fibrinogen y’ chain has been associated with thrombotic disorders. Many studies have investigated the fibrinogen variables in Caucasian individuals, but only a few such studies have been conducted on non-Caucasian individuals. The genetic diversity of ethnic groups differs and could cause differences in the fibrinogen variables between these groups. Fibrinogen is known to increase with age; therefore to explain changes over time in fibrinogen concentrations it was also important to investigate whether genetic determinants and possible gene–environment interactions influenced fibrinogen over time. In this study the main aim was to determine the change in the fibrinogen variables over a five-year period within a black South African cohort subdivided according to genotypes associated with fibrinogen variables, and to determine whether the observed changes were modulated by environmental factors. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS - Data [baseline (n=2010) and follow-up (n=1288)] were collected in the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study during 2005 and 2010 from apparently healthy black men and women aged between 35 and 65 years and residing in rural or urban settlements. Experimental methods included analysis of fibrinogen and fibrinogen y’ concentrations, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and determination of environmental factors associated with the fibrinogen variables. RESULTS - The fibrinogen variables increased significantly from 2005 to 2010 in both the rural and urban participants, as well as in both men and women. The major environmental factors that affected the fibrinogen variables were C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), body mass index (BMI), glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), age, blood lipids, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and tobacco use. Fibrinogen increased consistently from 2005 to 2010 in the respective genotypes of all SNPs analysed, except in the FGG 9340 T>C homozygous mutant carriers. Fibrinogen y’ also increased in general in most genotypes from 2005 to 2010, except in the FGG 10034 C>T mutant allele carriers, where a decrease was observed. It was determined that CRP was the only environmental factor that influenced the change in fibrinogen over time and that FGG 10034 C>T was the only SNP that influenced the change in fibrinogen y’ over the five years. Four gene–environment interactions also influenced fibrinogen on a cross-sectional level, i.e. FGA 2224 G>A with age, FGB Arg448Lys with HIV status, FGB 1643 C>T with urbanisation and FGB 1038 G>A with HbA1c. Only the FGG 9340 T>C with HbA1c interaction was found to predict change in fibrinogen concentrations over the five years. CONCLUSION - Both environmental and genetic factors significantly influenced the fibrinogen variables cross-sectionally as well as prospectively. It was clear that the influence of the environmental factors was mediated by genetic polymorphisms and vice versa, as can be seen by the gene–environment interactions found in this study. An important finding of this study was that the interaction of HbA1c with two SNPs on fibrinogen variables may explain the known inconsistent relationship found between fibrinogen concentrations and diabetes. / MSc (Dietetics), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014