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Suite à la rencontre d’un antigène (Ag) présenté à la surface des cellules présentatrice de l’Ag (CPA), les lymphocytes T naïfs, ayant un récepteur des cellules T (RCT) spécifique de l’Ag, vont proliférer et se différencier en LT effecteurs (1). Suite à l’élimination de l’Ag la majorité des LTe vont mourir par apoptose alors que les restants vont se différencier en LT mémoire (LTm) protégeant l’organisme à long terme. Les mécanismes qui permettent la différenciation des LTe en LTm sont encore inconnus. Pour comprendre comment les LTm CD8+ sont générés à partir des LTe, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que la densité de l’Ag présenté par les CPA peut avoir un impact sur la sélection des LT CD8+ répondant l’Ag à se différencier en LTm. De manière intéressante, nos résultats montrent qu’une immunisation avec des cellules dendritiques (DCs) exprimant un haut niveau de complexe CMH/peptide à sa surface permet le développement de LTm. À l’inverse, le développement des LTm est fortement réduit (10-20X) lorsque les souris sont immunisées avec des DCs exprimant un niveau faible de complexes CMH/peptide à leur surface. De plus, la quantité d’Ag n’a aucune influence ni sur l’expansion des LT CD8+ ni sur l’acquisition de leurs fonctions effectrices, mais affecte de manière critique la génération des LTm. Nos résultats suggèrent que le nombre de RCT engagé lors de la reconnaissance de l’Ag est important pour la formation des LTm. Pour cela nous avons observé par vidéo-microscopie le temps d’interaction entre des LTn et des DCs. Nos résultats montrent que le temps et la qualité de l’interaction sont dépendants de la densité d’Ag présenté par les DCs. Effectivement, nous observons une diminution dans le pourcentage de LT faisant une interaction prolongée avec les DCs quand le niveau d’Ag est faible. De plus, nous observons des variations de l’expression des facteurs de transcription clefs impliqués dans la différenciation des LTm tels qu’Eomes, Bcl-6 et Blimp-1. Par ailleurs, la densité d’Ag fait varier l’expression du Neuron-derived orphan nuclear receptor 1 (Nor-1). Nor-1 est impliqué dans la conversion de Bcl-2 en molécule pro-apoptotique et contribue à la mort par apoptose des LTe pendant la phase de contraction. Notre modèle propose que la densité de l’épitope contrôle la génération des CD8+ LTm. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes impliqués dans la génération des LTm permettra le développement de meilleures stratégies pour la génération de vaccin. Dans un second temps, nous avons évalué le rôle du signal RCT dans l’homéostasie des LTm. Pour ce faire, nous avons utilisé un modèle de souris transgénique pour le RCT dont son expression peut être modulée par un traitement à la tétracycline. Ce système nous a permis d’abolir l’expression du RCT à la surface des LTm. De manière intéressante, en absence de RCT exprimé, les LTm CD8+ peuvent survivre à long terme dans l’organisme et rester fonctionnels. De plus, une sous population des LTm CD4+ a la capacité de survivre sans RCT exprimé dans un hôte lymphopénique alors que l’autre sous population nécessite l’expression du RCT. / Following antigen (Ag) encounter presented at surface of antigen presenting cell (APC), naïve T lymphocytes, which express a T cell receptor (TCR) specific for Ag, undergo massive proliferation and differentiate into effector T cells (1). After elimination of the pathogen, most effector T cells die, while the remaining differenciates into memory T cells (LTm) which are responsible for long-term protection of the organism. The mechanism that promotes the differentiation of effectors T cells into memory T cells is still largely unknown. To understand how Tm cells are generated from effectors, we hypothesized that the density of antigen on the APC could have an impact on the selection of CD8+ T cell responders differentiating into memory. Very interestingly, our results show that immunization of mice with dendritic cells (DCs) expressing high levels of peptide-MHC complexes on their surface allow a strong development of LTm. In contrast, the development of memory T cells was strongly reduced (10-20X) when mice were immunized with DCs expressing two-fold less level of peptide-MHC complexes. In agreement with the results described above, the amount of Ag does not have any influence on T cell expansion and acquisition of effector functions, but critically affects memory T cell generation. Our data suggest that the numbers of TCR engaged in MHC/peptide recognition are important for the formation of memory T cells. To do that, we evaluated by time-lapse videomicroscopy the time of interaction between LTn and DCs. Effectively, we observed a significant reduction in the percentage of cells making prolonged interaction with DCs when the level of Ag is decreased. Moreover, we observed a modification in the expression of key transcription factors involved in the differentiation of Tm cells, such as Eomes, Bcl6 and Blimp-1. Further analysis reveals that the Ag density influences the expression of Neuron-derived orphan nuclear receptor 1 (Nor1). Nor-1 is involved in the conversion of Bcl-2 into a pro-apoptotic molecule and contributes to effector death by apoptosis during contraction phase. Our model proposes that density of Ag controls the generation of LTm. A better understanding of the role of TCR signals in the generation of LTm will help to develop better vaccination strategies. Second time, we have evaluated the role of TCR signals in Tm cell homeostasis. To do that, we have used a tetracycline-inducible expression system of the TCR in mice. This system allows us to abolish TCR expression on Tm cells. Interestingly, we show that the ablation of TCR expression did not influence the survival and functionnality of Ag-specific CD8+ LTm cells. Furthermore, our results show that a subset of CD4 Tm cells can survive in the absence of TCR expression in nonlymphopenic hosts while another subset requires the TCR expression to survive.

Primary immunodeficiencies represent a heterogeneous group of hereditary immune system malfunctions with very variable causes and symptoms. Multiparametric flow cytometry has become an important tool in primary immunodeficiency diagnostics and research because it provides detailed information on the phenotype of individual immune cells and their proportions in circulation. We have developed a complex monoclonal antibody panel composed of five eight-color tubes which is designed for immunophenotyping of basic lymphocyte subsets and further analysis of B and T cell subpopulations. We have optimized and standardized the panels so they will identify any changes originating from primary immunodeficiencies and provide comparable data on the level of cooperation between more laboratories. This was achieved by cooperation of six European research facilities which are all parts of the Euroflow consortium. The panels have been validated both on peripheral blood samples from healthy donors and patients with either gentically defined primary immunodeficiency or common variable immunodeficiency. Keywords: T lymphocyte, B lymphocyte, primary immunodeficiency, flow cytometry, immunophenotyping, Euroflow, optimization, standardization

Os linfócitos T regulatórios (Tregs) desempenham um papel essencial no controle da tolerância periférica, regulando a homeostase do sistema imune, e, por este motivo, são consideradas a população celular - com fenótipo regulatório - mais importante do sistema imune. Sob estímulos específicos, as Tregs podem ser geradas naturalmente no timo (nTregs), ou serem induzidas na periferia (pTreg) a partir de células T naive. É possível gerar Tregs in vitro (iTreg) a partir de células T CD4+ naive isoladas de sangue de cordão umbilical, suplementando a cultura com TGF-?, atRA e IL-2. Haja vista o grande potencial terapêutico das iTregs, a comunidade científica apresenta grande interesse no entendimento dos mecanismos envolvidos em sua geração. Os mais recentes trabalhos indicam um importante papel da via NF-?B na geração destas células, especialmente no que tange o componente c-Rel. Entretanto, na literatura, não existem dados suficientes sobre a avaliação dos genes potencialmente orquestrados por este fator. Permeado por todo este questionamento, o presente trabalho avalia a interação de c-Rel com as regiões promotoras do genoma, em células T naive e nas células iTregs geradas in vitro. Em adição, também avalia o efeito do silenciamento da proteína c-Rel no perfil de geração das iTregs. Para isso, foi utilizada a metodologia de imunoprecipitação de cromatina atrelada à técnica de PCR em tempo real com primers, que cobrem as regiões promotoras de alguns genes com papel importante na biologia de células T naive e de iTreg. Também foi avaliado a eficiência de transfecção de siRNA contra c-Rel e também do siRNA marcado com molécula fluorescente FITC em conjunto com diferentes concentrações e diferentes reagentes de transfecção, utilizando células Jurkat e T naive. Nossos resultados mostraram uma melhor eficiência de transfecção do siRNA FITC, considerando as células viáveis transfectadas, com os agentes DharmaFECT®1 (22,14%), DharmaFECT®4 (43,14%) e DMRIE-C (27,59%) em células Jurkat e DharmaFECT®1 (16,35%) e DMRIE-C (25,94%) em células T naive, nas maiores concentrações, entretanto não é muito eficiente para a avaliação do silenciamento proteico por qPCR. Além disso demonstramos que em uma pureza média de 80,46% de células Tnaive isoladas obtivemos a geração das iTregs (CD4+CD25+CD127-FOXP3+) com 98,42%, em média, na expressão do marcador FOXP3, e essas células iTregs apresentam maior ligação de cRel aos promotores de genes como IL2RA (CD25) (média de 8,26 vezes), CD69 (3,71 vezes), regiões do gene FOXP3 (região promotora (20,15 vezes), região CNS - kb1 (16,9 vezes), kb2 (17,2 vezes) e kb3 (23,29 vezes)) e do próprio Rel (8,12 vezes). Estes resultados evidenciam os potenciais mecanismos de regulação exercidos por c-Rel, durante o processo de geração das iTregs. / Regulatory T lymphocytes (Tregs) play an essential role in the control of peripheral tolerance, regulating the homeostasis of the immune system, and are considered the cellular population - with regulatory phenotype - most important of the immune system. Tregs can be generated naturally in the thymus (nTregs), or be induced at the periphery (pTreg) from naive T cells, in dependence of specifcs stimuli. In cell culture, supplemented with factors such as IL-2, TGF-? and atRA, it is possible to generate in vitro Tregs (iTreg) from naive CD4 + T cells isolated from umbilical cord blood. Knowing the great therapeutic potential of iTregs, the scientific community has shown great interest in understanding the mechanisms involved in this process. Recent works indicate an important role of the NF-?B pathway in the generation of these cells, especially relating the involvement of the c-Rel componente, however, in the literature, there are not enough data on the evaluation of genes potentially orchestrated by this factor. With all this questioning, this thesis aimed to evaluate the interaction of c-Rel with the some promoter regions of the genome, naive T cells and in vitro generated iTregs cells, in addition, we have also attempted to evaluate the effect of c-Rel protein silencing on the generation profile of iTregs. For this, the methodology of chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to the real-time PCR technique with primers was used, which cover the promoter regions of some genes with important role in the biology of naive and iTreg T cells, The efficiency of siRNA transfection against c-Rel and also the siRNA labeled with FITC fluorescence molecule in conjunction with different concentrations and different transfection reagentes, using Jurkat and naive T cells, was also evaluated. Our results showed a better transfection efficiency of the FITC siRNA, considering the viable cells transfected with the highest concentrations of the reagents DharmaFECT®1 (22,14%), DharmaFECT®4 (43,14%) e DMRIE-C (27,59%) with Jurkat cells and DharmaFECT®1 (16,35%) e DMRIE-C (25,94%) with naive T cells, however, was not very efficient for the evaluation by qPCR of silencing, that is, the reduction of c-Rel mRNA and RNA of other genes. In addition, we demonstrated that in an average purity of 80.46% of isolated naive T cells we obtained the generation of iTregs (CD4 + CD25 + CD127-FOXP3 +) with 98.42%, on average, in the expression of the FOXP3 marker, and in these iTregs cells, when compared to naive T cells, c-Rel subunit has bound to the promoters of the genes as IL2RA (CD25) (average de 8,26 folds), CD69 (3,71 folds), regions of the FOXP3 gene (promoter region (20,15 folds), CNS regions - kb1 (16,9 folds), kb2 (17,2 folds) and kb3 (23,29 folds)) and c-Rel promoter - Rel (8,12 folds). Our results demonstrate the possible regulatory mechanisms, such as some of the main roles of the c-Rel subunit during the generation process of iTregs.

Diabetes Mellitus tipo 1A (DM1A), doença autoimune clássica, decorrente da quebra de tolerância imune por fatores ambientais em indivíduos geneticamente predispostos, é caracterizada pela infiltração pancreática de linfócitos T e B, macrófagos e células dendríticas. As células T auxiliadoras 17 (Th17) são células potentes, altamente inflamatórias, que produzem a interleucina 17A (IL-17A), citocina mediadora de várias desordens imunológicas como, artrite reumatóide, esclerose múltipla, encefalite experimental autoimune, psoríase e asma, e em animais, o diabetes autoimune. No entanto, seu papel na patogênese do DM1A em humanos não está definido O objetivo de nosso estudo foi avaliar a influência da IL-17A na predisposição ao DM1A através da identificação de variantes alélicas no gene da IL-17A (por sequenciamento automático) e da determinação dos níveis séricos de IL-17A (por ELISA) e da expressão do seu receptor em linfócitos T periféricos (por citometria de fluxo). Foram analisados 103 pacientes com DM1A (idade 15,15 ± 10,38) e 102 controles normais (idade 18,29 ± 10,83). O estudo da expressão do receptor da IL-17A em linfócitos T periféricos bem como o da proteína sérica foram conduzidos em 24 pacientes com DM1A recente (duração inferior a 6 meses) e 23 controles normais. Resultados: Nos 3 exons da IL-17 A analisados, a freqüência das 14 variantes alélicas já descritas em bancos de dados e de três novas variantes alélicas na região não codificadora do exon 3 (3UTR) não diferiu entre diabéticos e controles. Detectamos, pela primeira vez, diminuição estatisticamente significativa da expressão proporcional do receptor de IL-17A em células TCD3+ (p = 0,041) e TCD4+ (p = 0,0019) periféricas de pacientes com DM1A de início recente quando comparados com controles normais. As concentrações séricas de IL-17A foram menores nos diabéticos. Não observamos correlação entre a expressão dos receptores com a resposta humoral (níveis de autoanticorpos pancreáticos anti-GAD65 e anti-IA2) ou com variáveis metabólicas (glicemia e HbA1c). Nossos resultados sugerem que mutações ou polimorfismos no gene da IL-17A não estão implicadas na predisposição ao DM1A em humanos. A reduzida expressão dos receptores de IL-17A em linfócitos T CD3+ e CD4+ periféricos e das concentrações séricas de IL-17A nos pacientes diabéticos não indicam a participação ativa da via Th17 na periferia na patogênese do DM1A em humanos. No entanto, não descartamos a possibilidade de que, ao estudarmos variáveis na periferia e não do local de agressão imune (as ilhotas pancreáticas), tenhamos obtido valores que não expressem o processo adequadamente. Um eventual mecanismo de regulação negativa da via Th17, na tentativa de proteção do organismo contra o processo inflamatório autoimune, poderia explicar a diminuição de expressão de IL-17RA nos linfócitos periféricos / Type 1A diabetes mellitus (T1AD), a classical autoimmune disease related to the loss of immune tolerance is determined by environmental factors in genetically predisposed individuals. Pancreatic infiltration of T and B lymphocytes, macrophages and dentric cells characterize the process. T helper 17 (Th17) cells are potent, highly inflammatory cells, which initiate tissue inflammation and induce infiltration of other inflammatory cells in target organs. They produce the Interleukin 17A (IL-17A), considered a mediator of various immune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalitis, psoriasis and asthma, and in animals, autoimmune diabetes. However, its role in T1AD pathogenesis in humans is not defined. The aim of our study was to evaluate the influence of IL-17A in T1AD predisposition in humans. The allelic variants of IL-17A gene (by automatic sequencing), the expression of IL-17A receptors in peripheral lymphocytes (by flow cytometry assay) and the serum levels of IL-17A (by ELISA) were analyzed. Our casuistic was composed of 103 patients with T1D (15,15 ± 10,38 years) and 102 normal controls (18,29 ± 10,83 years). The expression of IL-17A receptor in peripheral lymphocytes and the serum concentration of IL-17A were determined in a subgroup of 24 recent-onset T1D (less than 6 months) and 23 normal controls. Results: The frequency of the 14 allelic variants on the 3 exons of IL- 17A gene already described on data bases did not differ between patients with diabetes and controls. We detected three new allelic variants at the final non-coding region of exon 3. Their frequency was also similar between patients and controls. We detected for the first time a statistically significant decrease in the proportional expression of the receptor of IL-17 on CD3+ (p=0,041) and CD4+ (p=0,0019) T lymphocytes in patients with recent-onset type 1A diabetes. IL- 17A serum concentrations were also lower in patients. There was no correlation between the expression of IL-17A receptor and titles of pancreatic autoantibodies (anti-GAD65 or anti-IA2) or metabolic variables (glucose and HbA1c levels). Our results suggest that mutations or polymorphisms of IL-17A gene are not implicated in the pathogenesis of T1AD in humans. The reduced expression of IL-17A receptors in peripheral T lymphocytes and of IL-17A serum concentrations in patients with diabetes did not indicate a role of Th17 via at the periphery in the autoimmune process. There is however the possibility that by studying the peripheral and not the local immune aggression (pancreatic islets) we have obtained values that do not adequately express the process. A possible mechanism of negative regulation of receptors in an attempt to protect the organism against autoimmune inflammatory process could explain the decrease of IL-17A levels and of IL-17RA expression in peripheral lymphocytes

This dissertation addresses the role for Janus Kinase 3 (Jak3) in CD4+ T cell homeostasis and function. Jak3 is a protein tyrosine kinase whose activity is essential for signals mediated by the γc dependent cytokines IL-2, -4, -7, -9, -15, and -21. Previous data have demonstrated that peripheral CD4+ T cells from Jak3-deficient mice have a memory phenotype and are functionally impaired in both proliferative and IL-2 responses in vitro. Interestingly, Jak3/γc activity has been previously shown to play a role in the prevention of T cell anergy. These studies were initiated to more precisely define the role for Jak3/γc cytokines in the prevention of T cell anergy and the maintenance of functional CD4+ T cell responses. We began to address this question by assessing global gene expression changes between wild type and Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells. These data indicate that Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells have an increase in gene expression levels of inhibitory surface receptors as well as immunosuppressive cytokines. Further analyses confirmed that Jak3-deficient T cells express high levels of PD-1, secrete a Trl-type cytokine profile following direct ex vivo activation, and suppress the proliferation of wild type T cells in vitro. These characteristics indicate that CD4+ Jak3-/- T cells share properties with regulatory T cell subsets that have an important role in peripheral tolerance and the prevention of autoimmunity. We next addressed whether these regulatory characteristics were T cell intrinsic or rather the result of expanding in a Jak3-deficient microenvironment characterized by a number of immune abnormalities and a disrupted splenic architecture. Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells proliferate in vivoin a lymphopenic environment and selectively acquire regulatory T cell characteristics in the absence of any additional activation signals. While the precise mechanism by which Jak3-deficient T cells acquire these characteristics remains unclear, our data indicate that one important component is a T cell-intrinsic requirement for Jak3 signaling. These findings indicate several interesting aspects of T cell biology. First, these studies, demonstrate that the homeostatic proliferation of CD4+ T cells is not dependent on signaling via γc-dependent cytokine receptors. And, second, that the weak activation signals normally associated with homeostatic expansion are sufficient to drive Jak3-/- T cells into a non-conventional differentiation program. Previous data indicate that, for wild type T cells, signaling through both the TCR as well as γc-dependent cytokine receptors promote the homeostatic proliferation of T cells in lymphopenic hosts. Since Jak3-/- T cells are unable to receive these cytokine signals, their proliferation is likely to be wholly dependent on TCR signaling. As a consequence of this TCR signaling, Jak3-/- T cells proliferate, but in addition, are induced to up regulate PD-1 and to selectively activate the IL-10 locus while shutting off the production of IL-2. Since this fate does not occur for wild type T cells in a comparable environment, it is likely that the unique differentiation pathway taken by Jak3-/- T cells reflects the effects of TCR signaling in the absence of γc-dependent cytokine signaling. Interestingly, wild type T cells undergoing homeostatic expansion in lymphopenic hosts show many common patterns of gene expression to freshly-purified unmanipulated Jak3-/- T cells. For instance, micro array analysis of gene expression in wild type CD4+ T cells after lymphopenia induced homeostatic expansion show a similar pattern of upregulation in surface markers (PD-1 and LAG-3), and cytokine signaling molecules (IL-10 and IFN-γ cytokine, receptors, and inducible gene targets) to that of Jak3-/- CD4+ T cells immediately ex vivo. These data suggest that the process of homeostatic proliferation normally induces immune attenuation and peripheral tolerance mechanisms, but that full differentiation into a regulatory T cell phenotype is prevented by γc-dependent cytokine signals. Taken together these data suggest that Jak3 plays an important role in tempering typical immune attenuation mechanisms employed to maintain T cell homeostasis and peripheral tolerance.

INTRODUÇÃO: Após a infecção aguda pelo HIV-1, um grupo privilegiado de pessoas consegue controlar a replicação viral sem o uso de antirretrovirais para níveis de viremia abaixo dos limites de detecção pelos testes disponíveis. Alguns alelos HLA estão associados à menor replicação viral durante a infecção recente e menor progressão para doença causada pelo HIV-1, sendo o HLA-B*57 o que está mais associado a esse efeito protetor. OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste trabalho foi confirmar a associação do HLA-B*57 com o melhor controle da viremia em indivíduos com infecção recente pelo HIV-1. MÉTODOS: Foram analisadas amostras de 228 indivíduos de uma coorte prospectiva em acompanhamento na cidade de São Paulo, identificados com infecção recente pelo HIV-1, pelo algoritmo STARHS (serologic testing algorithm for recent human HIV seroconversion). Foram realizadas a contagem de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+, carga viral do HIV-1 e tipificação dos alelos HLA. RESULTADOS: Dos 208 indivíduos analisados para o locus B, 15 indivíduos (7,2%) expressam o alelo HLA-B*57. O alelo HLA-B*57 foi fortemente correlacionado com os indivíduos que apresentam parâmetros laboratoriais favoráveis. A presença do HLA-B*57 foi associada com maior contagem de linfócitos T CD4+ basal (p=0, 043) e menor carga viral basal (p=0, 001). Dos 15 indivíduos que expressam o HLA-B*57, oito (53,3%) apresentaram-se com a viremia menor que 400 cópias/ml na visita inicial (Grupo A) e sete (46,6%) apresentaram-se com viremia maior que 400 cópias/mL, todos eles na ausência de terapia antirretroviral. A contagem de linfócitos T CD4+, entretanto, não foi diferente entre os dois grupos. CONCLUSÃO: Concluindo, este estudo indica que indivíduos que expressam o alelo HLA-B*57, apresentam melhor resposta imunológica na infecção recente demonstrada por melhor padrão laboratorial na contagem de linfócitos T CD4+, mas que perfis diferentes de controle podem existir nesses indivíduos. A diferença entre o comportamento da viremia nestes dois grupos pode auxiliar no entendimento da fisiopatogênese da infecção pelo HIV-1. / INTRODUCTION: After HIV-1 infection, a privileged group of subjects control viral replication to low levels, without the use of antiretroviral drugs. Some HLA alleles are associated with this control and to slower progression to immunodeficiency, especially the HLA-B*57. AIM: The aim of this study was to confirm the association of HLA-B*57 with viral control in recently HIV-1-infected subjects. MATERIALS: A cohort of recently HIV-1-infected 228 subjects, prospectively followed in the City of São Paulo, were identified using STARHS (serologic testing algorithm for recent human HIV seroconversion). CD4+, CD8+ T cell counts, viral loads, and HLA typing were performed in the participants samples. RESULTS: HLA typing was performed in 208 out of 228 subjects. Of those, 15 (7.2%) were HLA-B*57. This genotype was strongly correlated with favorable laboratory outcomes. HLA-B*57 subjects presented higher CD4+ T cell counts (p=0.043) and lower viral loads at the baseline visit (p=0.001). Eight (53.3%) out of 15 HLA-B*57 subjects presented undetectable viral load at the baseline visit (Group A) and seven (46.6%)had detectable viremia (Group B). However, the CD4+ T cell counts were not different between the two groups. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, this study points to the protective association of HLA-B*57 allele with better laboratory outcomes in HIV-1 infection, demonstrated by better CD4+ T cell counts and lower viral loads. Nevertheless, different profiles may exist within this group of subjects. The diverse viral control in such subjects may help better understand the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection.

A interação entre a imunidade inata e adaptativa acontece durante diversas fases da resposta imune. Os Toll-like receptors (TLRs) tem importante papel na ativação de macrófagos e portanto, no conjunto de moléculas secretadas por estas células. Pouco se sabe sobre o papel destas substâncias no processo de contração da população de células T ativadas (Activation-induced cell death - AICD). Portanto, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar se macrófagos estimulados com diferentes agonistas de TLRs poderiam produzir fatores solúveis com capacidade modulatória da morte por AICD. Primeiramente, demonstramos que tanto a linhagem macrofágica J774, quanto os macrófagos derivados de medula óssea (BMDMs) expressam todos os TLRs, com excessão do TLR11. Comprovamos que estas proteínas são funcionais, uma vez que o estímulo com agonistas de TLRs leva à ativação de NF-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#954B nestes macrófagos. Finalmente, mostramos que os sobrenadantes gerados pelos macrófagos são capazes de proteger as células DO11.10 da AICD, via a regulação negativa de FasL, parcialmente mediada por PGE2. / The interaction between innate and adaptative immunity occurs in several phases of the immune response. The Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have an important role in the activation of macrophages directly acting on the molecules secreted by these cells. Little is known about the role of these secreted molecules on the survival control of activated T lymphocytes (Activation-induced cell death - AICD). Therefore, the objective of the present work was to evaluate the effects of soluble factors produced by macrophages activated with several TLRs agonists, on the survival of T lymphocytes. First we sought the expression of TRLs on both bone marrow-derived and J774 macrophage cell line and we could see that both cells express all TLRs, except for TLR 11. The stimulation of both cells with TLRs agonists leads to the expression of NF-<font face=\"Symbol\">&#954B and the production of soluble factors that are able to protect DO11.10 T lymphocyte cell line from AICD, via down regulation of FasL partially mediated by PGE2.

Les polynucléaires neutrophiles (PN) sont des cellules essentielles au cours de la réponse immunitaire innée ; recrutés rapidement au site inflammatoire où ils participent à la phase aigüe, ils vont aussi contribuer à la résolution de l’inflammation. Ils peuvent en effet moduler la réponse adaptative par interaction avec les lymphocytes (Ly) ou les cellules dendritiques (DC) via des médiateurs solubles ou des interactions cellulaires directes. Les Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) libérés par les PN activés pourraient jouer un rôle important dans ce contexte. Les NETs sont des filaments de chromatine décondensée associés à des protéines issues principalement des granulations et du cytoplasme. Ils sont essentiels dans la réponse anti-infectieuse mais semblent également impliqués dans la physiopathologie de certaines maladies auto-immunes et inflammatoires. L’objectif de ce travail a été d’évaluer les effets des NETs sur la maturation des DC dans un contexte inflammatoire au cours duquel les PN et les DC peuvent co-exister, assurant ainsi un pont entre immunité innée et immunité adaptative. La première partie de ce travail a consisté à développer un modèle de production, isolement et caractérisation des NETs issus de PN sanguins humains. L’ionophore de calcium A23187 a été choisi pour induire les NETs et l'enzyme de restriction AluI a permis la récupération de fragments de NETs de taille hétérogène. Certains des composants de ces NETs sont quantifiables (ADN, élastase, histone 3 en particulier), et nous avons montré qu’ils conservaient leurs capacités bactéricides in vitro. Ces échantillons de NETs constituent donc un outil biologique standardisé, permettant d’évaluer leurs effets sur des cellules ou des tissus. Dans la deuxième partie de ce travail, nous avons mis en évidence que ces NETs purifiés régulaient négativement la maturation de moDC induites par le LPS (expression de HLA-DR, CD80, CD83, CD86 et production de TNFα, IL-12, IL-6, IL-23). De plus, les NETs diminuent la capacité de ces moDC à induire la prolifération des LyT, et leur polarisation est modulée en favorisant la production de cytokines de type Th2 (IL-5 et IL-13) aux dépens de cytokines de types Th1 (INFγ) et Th17 (IL-17). De manière intéressante, la capacité de migration des moDC activées par le LPS n’est pas modifiée en présence de NETs. En résumé, ces résultats suggèrent que les NETs pourraient jouer un rôle immunorégulateur sur la maturation des moDC dans des conditions inflammatoires. Les NETs produits par les PN activés pourraient ainsi participer à la régulation indispensable de la réponse inflammatoire. / Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) are innate immune cells rapidly recruited to the inflammatory sites where they play a major role during the acute phase response but also contribute to resolution and repair. They can also modulate the adaptive response by interacting with lymphocytes (Ly) or dendritic cells (DC) via soluble mediators or cell-cell contacts. Activated PMN release Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) that could play a role in this context. NETs are decondensed chromatin fibers associated with granule and cytoplasmic proteins. As they are mainly involved in host defense against infection, they contribute to some autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. The aim of this work was to evaluate NET effects on DC maturation in an inflammatory context where PMN and DC co-exist, thus bridging innate and adaptive immunity. We first developed a model to induce, isolate and characterize NETs from human PMN. Calcium ionophore A23187 was chosen to induce NETs and the restriction enzyme AluI allowed the recovery of heterogeneous-sized fragments of NETs. Some of their components were quantified (DNA, elastase, histone 3, in particular) and we found that they retained their bactericidal activity. These NETs samples thus constitute a new and important biological tool to study their effects on immune cells or tissues. In the second part of this work, we found that isolated NETs were able to down-regulate LPS-induced moDC maturation as evidenced by the expressions of HLA-DR, CD80, CD83, CD86 and cytokine release (TNFα, Il-6, IL-12, Il-23). Moreover, the presence of NETs during moDC maturation lead to a decrease capacity of these moDC to induce T lymphocyte proliferation and modulated polarization by promoting the production of Th2 cytokines (IL-5 and IL-13) and decreasing Th1 cytokines (INFγ) and Th17 (IL- 17). Interestingly, moDC migration capacity was not modified when moDC maturation was done in the presence of NETs. In summary, these data suggest that NETs could downregulate DC activation. NETs produced by activated PMN could thus participate to the regulation of inflammation.

Au cours de la réponse immunitaire antitumorale, l’instabilité génétique des tumeurs combinée à la pression de sélection du système immunitaire peut conduire, via l’immunoediting, à l’émergence de variants tumoraux résistants à la lyse par les effecteurs cytotoxiques. Une meilleure compréhension de ces mécanismes potentiellement impliqués dans la susceptibilité tumorale à la lyse naturelle et/ou spécifique pourrait permettre le développement de stratégies d’immunothérapie intégratives plus efficaces. Dans ce cadre nous avons étudié un modèle de résistance à la lyse spécifique impliquant un remaniement du cytosquelette d’actine (i). Nous avons pu mettre en évidence que l’inhibition conjointe de protéines interagissant avec l’actine (caldesmone, ézrine, radixine et moésine) générait une réduction de la susceptibilité des cellules tumorales à la lyse par les lymphocytes T cytotoxiques (CTLs). Parallèlement, nous avons identifié les microARNs différentiellement exprimés entre le variant résistant et la lignée parentale et étudié leur implication dans la susceptibilité tumorale à la lyse par les CTLs. Dans le but de déterminer le rôle d’une pression de sélection par les cellules tueuses naturelles (NK pour Natural Killer), de l’immunité innée, sur les cellules tumorales et l’émergence de variants résistants, nous avons aussi établi un modèle de coculture continue de cellules tumorales de mélanomes avec des cellules NK (ii). Les cellules tumorales obtenues sont résistantes à la lyse NK (mais toujours sensibles à la lyse spécifique par un clone lymphocytaire T cytotoxique) et établissent moins de contact et de synapse immunologique avec les cellules NK que la lignée parentale. L’analyse transcriptomique a révélé la baisse d'expression de B7-H6 (ligand d'un récepteur activateur des cellules NK) qui contribue partiellement au phénomène de résistance. De nombreux gènes impliqués dans les phénomènes de migration/invasion/adhérence sont également modulés et certaines propriétés cellulaires (croissance en milieu semi-solide, adhérence, migration) semblent refléter l’acquisition d’une agressivité tumorale accrue suite à la coculture. Nous avons finalement analysé l’impact sur la réponse antitumorale de la connexine-43, impliquée dans la formation des jonctions communicantes (GJ pour Gap Junction) (iii). Nous avons montré que sa présence à la synapse entre cellules tumorales et CTL n'exerce aucun impact sur la susceptibilité à la lyse. Néanmoins, les GJs sont impliquées dans l’émergence par stimulation antigénique de lymphocyte T CD8+ spécifique hautement réactif. / During antitumor immune response, cancer cells genetic instability combined with immune system selective pressure may drive to the emergence of tumor variant resistant to lysis by cytotoxic effector cells through a phenomenon called immunoediting. A better understanding of those mechanisms putatively involved in tumor susceptibility to natural and/or specific lysis would enable new integrative and more effective immunotherapeutic strategies. In this context, we studied a model of resistance to specific lysis linked to actin cytoskeleton remodeling (i). We showed that combined inhibition of actin interacting protein (caldesmone, ezrin, radixin and moesin) reduced tumor cells susceptibility to cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) lysis. Moreover, we identified microRNAs differentially expressed between parental cell line and resistant variant and are currently studying their impact on tumor susceptibility to CTLs lysis. In order to depict the role of innate immunity Natural Killer (NK) cells selective pressure, on tumor cells and on the emergence of resistant variants, we also established a maintained coculture model of melanoma cells with NK cells (ii). Selected cells obtained were resistant to NK cells-mediated lysis (but still susceptible to CTLs-mediated specific lysis) and formed less contact and immune synapse with NK cells than parental cell line. Transcriptomic analysis revealed the reduced expression of B7-H6 (ligand of an NK cells activating receptor) partially contributing to the resistance phenotype. The expression of several genes involved in migration/invasion/adhesion is also modulated and some cell characteristics (cell growth in semi-solid medium, adhesion, migration) tend to reflect the acquisition through coculture of an increased aggressiveness. Finally, we evaluated the impact of connexin-43 (Cx43), involved in the establishment of Gap Junctions (GJs), on antitumor response (iii). We showed that despite localization at the immune synapse between tumor target cell and CTL, Cx43 and GJs do not modulate susceptibility to CTL-mediated specific lysis. Nevertheless, GJs contribute to the emergence of highly reactive specific CD8+ T lymphocytes following antigen stimulation.