Submitted by ELKIN FERNANDO RODAS MENDOZA null (elferodas@yahoo.es) on 2016-09-24T23:11:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese Final.pdf: 4482779 bytes, checksum: 749ee0c558bf2e2ec8bbdc14d079523e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Felipe Augusto Arakaki (arakaki@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-09-27T14:22:47Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 mendoza_efr_dr_jabo.pdf: 4482779 bytes, checksum: 749ee0c558bf2e2ec8bbdc14d079523e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-27T14:22:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 mendoza_efr_dr_jabo.pdf: 4482779 bytes, checksum: 749ee0c558bf2e2ec8bbdc14d079523e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-08-25 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) é o agente causal do cancro cítrico, uma das principais doenças que acometem a citricultura mundial. Atualmente não há uma maneira eficiente de controle do cancro, e novos métodos devem ser desenvolvidos para o tratamento desta doença. Assim, o estudo dos mecanismos utilizados pela Xac durante o processo infeccioso pode revelar novos alvos para o desenvolvimento de compostos farmacológicos que possam eliminar ou controlar o patógeno. Neste estudo, a técnica de RNA-Seq foi utilizada para a identificação de genes diferencialmente expressos (GDE) na Xac em condições in vivo e in vitro. Para isso, cinco variedades de citros com níveis diferentes de suscetibilidade ao cancro cítrico, e meios de cultura indutores de fatores de virulência foram utilizados. Muitos dos genes que codificam para proteínas relacionadas ao sistema de secreção tipo 3 (T3SS), enzimas extracelulares, resposta ao estresse oxidativo, transportadores de ferro e fósforo foram induzidos pela Xac nas condições in vivo. No entanto, in vitro, os perfis de expressão para estes mesmos genes foram diferentes. Estes dados permitiram compreender melhor o ambiente intracelular do hospedeiro, e como este se relaciona com os mecanismos de ativação dos fatores de virulência e patogenicidade de Xac. Neste sentido, os dados apresentados neste estudo mostraram que o T3SS é o principal fator de virulência expresso por esta bactéria em condições in vivo. Além disso, nossos resultados sugerem também que as baixas concentrações de fósforo inorgânico (Pi) e nitrogênio que a bactéria percebe no apoplasto das plantas, são interpretadas como sinais para a ativação do T3SS. Mutações realizadas em genes relacionados com o transporte de Pi (∆phoR e ∆pstB) em Xac demostraram a perda de virulência por alteração na expressão dos genes do T3SS. Assim, estes dados demostram pela primeira vez em Xac um possível mecanismo de regulação entre o sistema de transporte de Pi e o T3SS. Este estudo revelou diferentes fatores de virulência e patogenicidade utilizados pela Xac para vencer as defesas da planta, o que permitirá levantar hipóteses sobre a identificação de possíveis alvos quimioterapêuticos para o tratamento do cancro. / Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) is the causal agent of citrus canker, a major disease affecting citrus worldwide. Currently there is no effective way of cancer control, and new methods must be developed for the treatment of this disease. Thus, the study of the mechanisms used by Xac during the infectious process can reveal new targets for the development of pharmacologic compounds that can eliminate or control the pathogen. In this study, RNA-Seq technique was used to identify Xac differentially expressed genes (DEG) in vivo and in vitro conditions. For this purpose, five citrus varieties with different levels of susceptibility to citrus canker and culture mediums inducing virulence factors were used. Many of the genes encoding proteins of the type 3 protein secretion system (T3SS), extracellular enzymes, oxidative stress response, iron and phosphorus transport were induced in Xac in vivo conditions. However, the expression profiles for these same genes were different than observed in vitro conditions. These data allowed us to better understand the intracellular environment of the host, and how this relates to the activation mechanisms of pathogenicity and virulence factors in Xac. In this context, the data presented in this study show the T3SS as the main virulence factor expressed by the bacteria in vivo conditions. Furthermore, our results also suggest that low concentrations of inorganic phosphorus (Pi) and nitrogen, that bacteria sense in the plant apoplast, are interpreted as signals to activation of the T3SS. In this respect, mutations carried out in genes related to the transport of Pi (ΔphoR and ΔpstB) in Xac demonstrated loss of virulence by altering the expression of T3SS genes. Thus, these data identifies for the first time in Xac a possible regulatory mechanism between Pi transport system and T3SS. This study revealed different virulence and pathogenicity factors used by Xac to overcome the plant defenses. These discoveries allow raise hypotheses about the identification of potential chemotherapeutic targets to canker treatment.

O cancro cítrico é considerado na atualidade uma das doenças mais perigosas e prejudiciais à citricultura brasileira e mundial, devido aos danos causados na produção e qualidade dos frutos, sendo a Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac) a bactéria fitopatogênica responsável por tais prejuízos. Nosso laboratório iniciou estudos de identificação e análise funcional das interações proteína-proteína de Xac envolvendo sistemas importantes para sua patogenicidade (Alegria et. al., 2004). Nosso objetivo principal foi o estudo funcional e fisiológico de interações já identificadas entre proteínas do sistema de secreção do tipo III (T3SS) da Xac. O foco de nossa pesquisa foi tentar desvendar a importância biológica, na patogenicidade de Xac, das interações proteína-proteína: HrpB2-HrcU; HpaA-HpaB-HrcV; HrpD6-HrpB1- HrpW. Com este intuito clonamos, expressamos e purificamos as proteínas recombinantes. Produzimos soros policlonais específicos contra cada uma das proteínas citadas acima. Estudamos a interação entre as proteínas in vitro por meio de técnicas como Far-Western Blot, Pull Down, fluorescência e dicroísmo circular. Outro enfoque do nosso trabalho foi monitorar a contribuição individual destas proteínas no desenvolvimento da doença in planta. Para isso produzimos cepas de Xac mutantes para os genes hrpB2, hrcU, hpaA, hpaB, hrpB1 e hrpG. Os nocautes não polares foram infiltrados em plantas de laranja pêra, assim como também as cepas de complementação correspondentes, e assim foi testada a habilidade de desenvolver o cancro cítrico e/ou reverter os sintomas da doença. Também foi monitorada a capacidade de multiplicação e sobrevida in planta das cepas Xac ΔhrpB2, ΔhrcU e ΔhpaB, assim como a secreção das proteínas HrpB2 e HpaA pelo T3SS de Xac. Estudamos com mais detalhe a possível função de HrpB2 no T3SS de Xac, desenvolvendo experimentos para determinar a região da proteína imprescindível para sua função permanecer inalterada. Realizamos mutações sítio dirigidas, a fim de introduzir códons de terminação em diferentes regiões da proteína e testar a habilidade desses fragmentos de reverter os sintomas da doença na planta. Monitoramos a capacidade de proteínas mutantes de reverter fenótipos de patogenicidade em citrus, ausentes na cepa Xac ΔhrpB2 e revertidos na cepa de complementação Xac ΔhrpB2+pUFR047_hrpB2. Desta maneira, determinamos que os últimos seis aminoácidos de HrpB2 estão envolvidos no desenvolvimento da/s função/ões em Xac. / Citrus canker, caused by the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri (Xac), is a disease with significant economic consequences for the Brazilian and global citrus industry due to reductions in production and fruit quality. Our laboratory has initiated studies for the identification and functional analysis of protein-protein interactions involving Xac systems involved in pathogenicity (Alegria et. al., 2004). One objective has been to study functional and physiological interactions between proteins that make up the Xac Type III secretion system (T3SS). The focus of the present study is to unravel the biological significance in Xac pathogenicity of the following previously identified protein-protein interactions: HrpB2-HrcU; HpaA-HpaBHrcV; HrpD6-HrpB1-HrpW. With therefore cloned, expressed and purified the above-mentioned recombinant proteins. Specific polyclonal serum were produced and interactions between the proteins were studied in vitro using a variety of methods, including Far-Western Blot, Pull Down, fluorescence and circular dichroism. To monitor the individual contribution of these proteins in disease development in planta, we produced mutant Xac strains in which the hrpB2, hrcU, hpaA, hpaB, hrpB1 and hrpG genes were disrupted. The nonpolar knockouts as well as the corresponding complementation strains were infiltrated into Citrus sensensis plants and the development of citrus canker symtoms and bacterial proliferation in planta was evaluated. We also evaluated the T3SS-dependent secretion of proteins HpaA and HrpB2 by these Xac mutant strains. Structure-function relationships of the HrpB2 protein were studied in more detail. We developed experiments to determine the region of the protein essential for its function. We produced a series of hrpB2 mutants which were used to complement the hrpB2 knockout strain and evaluated their abilities to reverse the symptoms of the disease in the plant. The results demonstrate that the last six amino acids HrpB2 are important for its function in the development of disease symptoms by Xac.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa RsmA belongs to the CsrA family of RNA binding proteins. CsrA family members are post-transcriptional regulators of global gene expression and usually function to inhibit translation of target genes, but in some cases can also exert positive regulatory effects. Previous work from our lab determined that RsmA is required for maximal T3SS gene expression in P. aeruginosa strain PA103. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism underlying the RsmA-mediated control of T3SS gene expression was unknown. Expression of the T3SS is under the direct control of ExsA, a transcriptional activator. Previous microarray analyses showed that exsA transcript levels were reduced two-fold in an rsmA mutant. In chapter II I examine the role of RsmA in regulating ExsA expression. I demonstrate that expression of a ExsA-LacZ translational fusion was reduced two-fold in an rsmA mutant suggesting a specific effect of RsmA on ExsA expression. The effect of RsmA on ExsA expression occurs at a post-transcriptional level and is independent of mRNA and protein stabilization mechanisms. RsmA directly interacts with the exsCEBA transcript at multiple sites. Truncation analyses indicate that the -37 to +85 region (relative to the ATG start codon) is necessary and sufficient for RsmA-dependent control. I identified two binding sites, BS1 (-25 bp) and BS2 (+84), involved in the interaction of RsmA with the exsA transcript using sequence analysis, site-directed mutagenesis, EMSA assays, RNase footprints, and RNaseH cleavage assays. Mutagenesis of both binding sites results in an RsmA-independent phenotype. I further demonstrate that RsmA is able to activate ExsA expression. I propose a model wherein RsmA relieves a block on ExsA translation. Collectively, this work shows that RsmA directly binds and activates ExsA expression at the post-transcriptional level. Most Pseudomonas species carry at least two homologs of CsrA on the chromosome, but only one copy had been identified in P. aeruginosa. Through the course of other projects in the lab, we observed several phenotypes that could not be accounted for by a single copy of RsmA. In collaboration with the Wolfgang lab, we identified a second CsrA homolog, RsmF in P. aeruginosa. RsmF is dimeric in solution. The structure of RsmF differs substantially from other CsrA homologs by having alpha-helices located between the beta-2 and beta-3 strands. In chapter III I examine the role of RsmF in regulating RsmA-controlled processes associated with acute (T3SS) and chronic (T6SS and biofilm formation) infection. I discovered that while an rsmF mutant alone does not exhibit a phenotype, simultaneous deletion of both rsmA and rsmF significantly accentuates the phenotypes exhibited by an rsmA mutant alone. I show that RsmA directly binds and represses RsmF translation and that the small regulatory RNAs RsmZ and RsmY do not significantly modulate RsmF activity. Site-directed mutagenesis revealed that Arg 62, located in the beta-1 and beta-5 fold, is essential for biological activity in vivo and RNA-binding in vitro suggesting a conserved mechanism of RNA recognition maintained across all CsrA family members. Finally, I show that RsmF binds to only a subset of RsmA targets and is not involved in the regulation of all RsmA-controlled processes. In chapter IV I identified high-affinity RNA ligands from a chemically synthesized oligonucleotide library using systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) and high-througput sequencing. From preliminary analyses of high-throughput sequencing data, the RsmF-binding consensus was determined as 5'-RUACARGGAC-3', with the ARGGA motif being 95% conserved. Collectively, this work shows that Rsm homologs play important roles in regulating virulence gene expression in P. aeruginosa.

Several pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria invest in sophisticated type III secretion systems (T3SS) to incapacitate their eukaryotic hosts. T3SSs can secrete protein cargo outside the bacterial cell and also target many of them into the eukaryotic cell interior. Internalized proteins promote bacterial colonization, survival and transmission, and can often cause severe disease. An example is the Ysc-Yop T3SS apparatus assembled by pathogenic Yersinia spp. A correctly assembled Ysc-Yop T3SS spans the Yersinia envelope and also protrudes from the bacterial surface. Upon host cell contact, this system is competent to secrete hydrophobic translocators that form a translocon pore in the host cell membrane to complete the delivery channel bridging both bacterial and host cells. Newly synthesized effector Yops may pass through this channel to gain entry into the host cell cytosol.As type III secretion (T3S) substrates function sequentially during infection, it is hypothesized that substrate export is temporally controlled to ensure that those required first are prioritized for secretion. On this basis three functional groups are classified as early (i.e. structural components), middle (i.e. translocators) and late (i.e. effectors). Factors considered to orchestrate the T3S of substrates are many, including the intrinsic substrate secretion signal sequences, customized chaperones, and recognition/sorting platforms at the base of the assembled T3SS. Investigating the interplay between these elements is critical for a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing export control during Yersinia T3S.To examine the composition of the N-terminal T3S signals of the YscX early substrate and the YopD middle substrate, these segments were altered by mutagenesis and the modified substrates analyzed for their T3S. Translational fusions between these signals and a signalless β-Lactamase were used to determine their optimal length required for efficient T3S. This revealed that YscX and YopD export is most efficiently supported by their first 15 N-terminal residues. At least for YopD, this is a peptide signal and not base upon information in the mRNA sequence. Moreover, features within and upstream of this segment contribute to their translational control. In parallel, bacteria were engineered to produce substrate chimeras where the N-terminal segments were exchanged between substrates of different classes in an effort to examine the temporal dynamics of T3S. In several cases, Yersinia producing chimeric substrates were defective in T3S activity, which could be a consequence of disturbing a pre-existing hierarchal secretion mechanism.YopN and TyeA regulatory molecules can be naturally produced as a 42 kDa YopN-TyeA hybrid, via a +1 frame shift event somewhere at the 5’-end of yopN. To study this event, Yersinia were engineered to artificially produce this hybrid, and these maintained in vitro T3S control of both middle and late substrates. However, modestly diminished directed targeting of effectors into eukaryotic cells correlated to virulence attenuation in vivo. Upon further investigation, a YopN C-terminal segment encompassing residues 278 to 287 was probably responsible, as this region is critical for YopN to control T3S, via enabling a specific interaction with TyeA.Investigated herein were molecular mechanisms to orchestrate substrate export by the T3SS of Yersinia. While N-terminal secretion signals may contribute to specific substrate order, the YopN and TyeA regulatory molecules do not appear to distinguish between the different substrate classes.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Philip R. Hardwidge / Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains are common etiological agents of diarrhea. Diarrheagenic E. coli are classified into enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC or enterohemorrhagic E. coli [EHEC]), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC), enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), diffuse-adherent E. coli (DAEC), and adherent invasive E. coli (AIEC). In addition to encoding toxins that cause diarrhea, diarrheagenic E. coli have evolved numerous strategies to interfere with host defenses. In the first project, we identified an ETEC-secreted factor (ESF) that blocked TNF-induced NF-[kappa]B activation. One of the consequences of TNF-induced NF-[kappa]B activation is the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines that help to eliminate pathogens. Modulation of NF-[kappa]B signaling may promote ETEC colonization of the host small intestine. In this study, we fractionated ETEC supernatants and identified flagellin as necessary and sufficient for blocking the degradation of the NF-[kappa]B inhibitor I[kappa]B[alpha] in response to TNF[alpha]. In the second project, we attempted to identify an ETEC cAMP importer. ETEC diarrhea leads to cAMP release into the lumen of the small intestine. cAMP is a key secondary messenger that regulates ETEC adhesin expression. We hypothesized that a cAMP importer is present in ETEC, accounting for its hypersensitivity to extracellular cAMP. We used Tn5 transposome-mediated mutagenesis to construct a mutant library and screen for cAMP-hyporesponsive mutants. However, none of the 17,956 mutants we screened were cAMP-hyporesponsive. In the third project, we focused on gut microbiota and the T3SS effector NleH. We used the mouse-specific pathogen C. rodentium and transplanted performed microbiota between different mouse strains. We evaluated microbiota populations as a function of infection with WT and [Delta]nleH C. rodentium strains before and after microbiota transplantation. Microbiota transfer altered the resistance to WT C. rodentium infection in C57BL/10ScNJ mice and the NleH effector promoted host resistance to C. rodentium.

Several bacterial pathogens including Shigella (shigellosis), Escherichia coli (urinary tract infections), Pseudomonas (lung infections), Salmonella (food poisoning), and Yersinia (plague) critically rely on a complex type three secretion system (T3SS) for infection. With the rise in multi-antibiotic resistant strains of several of these pathogens, we turn to the T3SS as a promising target for the development of novel therapeutics. The Dickenson lab at Utah State University has been the first to identify and characterize the ATPase Spa47, the energy source of the Shigella infection system. We show that Spa47 is necessary for proper T3SS formation and function, being ultimately responsible for overall Shigella virulence. We find that proper ATPase function and in turn T3SS apparatus formation can be affected by something as simple as a single mutation to the removal of a non-catalytic domain. The insights gained from this work expands our understanding of the powerhouse that fuels these infection systems and brings us a step closer to developing novel therapeutics to combat infection.

Flagella, the helical propellers that extend from the bacterial cell surface, illustrate how complex nanomachines assemble outside the cell. The sequential construction of the flagellar rod, hook, and filament requires export of thousands of structural subunits across the cell membrane and this is achieved by a specialised flagellar Type III Secretion System (fT3SS) located at the base of each flagellum. The fT3SS imposes a crude ordering of subunits, with filament subunits only exported once the rod and hook are complete. This “export specificity switch” is controlled by the FlhB component of the fT3SS export gate in response to a signal from the exported molecular ruler FliK, which monitors the length of the growing hook. This study seeks to clarify how rod and hook subunits interact with FlhB, and how FlhB switches export specificity. Rod and hook subunits possess a conserved gate recognition motif (GRM; Fxxxφ, with φ being any hydrophobic residue) that is proposed to bind a surface-exposed hydrophobic patch on the FlhB cytosolic domain. Mutation of the GRM phenylalanine and the final hydrophobic residue resulted in impaired subunit export and decreased cell motility. Isothermal titration calorimetry was performed to assess whether subunit export order is imposed at FlhB. These experiments showed that rod and hook subunits bind to FlhB with micromolar dissociation constants (5-45 μM), suggesting transient interactions. There was no clear correlation between subunit affinity for FlhB and the order of subunit assembly in the nascent flagellum. Solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy supported prior data showing that rod and hook subunits interact with FlhB’s surface-exposed hydrophobic patch. NMR also indicated that residues away from the patch undergo a conformational change on subunit binding. FlhB autocleaves rapidly in its cytosolic domain, and the resulting polypeptides (FlhBCN and FlhBCC) are held together by non-covalent interactions between b-strands that encompass the autocleavage site. The autocleavage event is a prerequisite for the export specificity switch, but its function is unclear. Analysis of the cellular localization of FlhBCN and FlhBCC revealed that FlhBCC dissociated from the membrane export machinery, but only in the presence of FliK. Biochemical and biophysical studies of FlhB variants that undergo export specificity switching in the absence of FliK showed that these FlhB “autonomous switchers” were less stable than wildtype FlhB and their FlhBCC domain could dissociate from the export machinery in the absence of FliK. The results suggest that the export specificity switch involves a FliK-dependent loss of FlhBCC from the export machinery, eliminating the binding site for rod and hook subunits.

Type III secretion systems (T3SS) are a common feature of Gram-negative bacteria, allowing them to inject anti-host effectors into the interior of infected eukaryotic cells. By this mechanism, these virulence factors help the bacteria to modulate eukaryotic cell function in its favor and subvert host innate immunity. This promotes a less hostile environment in which infecting bacteria can colonize and cause disease. In pathogenic Yersinia, a crucial protein in this process is YopD. YopD is a T3S substrate that, together with YopB, forms a translocon pore in the host cell membrane through which the Yop effectors may gain access to the target-cell cytosol. The assembly of the translocator pore in plasma membranes is considered a fundamental feature of all T3SSs. How the pore is formed, what determines the correct size and ultimately the stoichiometry between YopD YopB, is still unknown. Portions of YopD are also observed inside HeLa cells. Moreover, YopD functions together with its T3S chaperone, LcrH, to control Yops synthesis in the bacterial cytoplasm. The multifunctional YopD may influence all these processes by compartmentalizing activities into discrete modular domains along the protein length. Therefore, understanding how particular domains and/or residues within these regions coordinate multiple functions of the protein will provide a platform to improve our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms behind translocation through T3SSs. Comprehensive site-directed mutagenesis of the YopD C-terminal amphipathic α-helix domain, pinpointed hydrophobic residues as important for YopD function. Some YopD variants were defective in self-assembly and in the ability to interact with the needle tip protein, LcrV, which were required to facilitate bacterial T3S activity. A similar mutagenesis approach was used to understand the role of the two predicted coiled-coils located at the N-terminal and C-terminal region of YopD. The predicted N-terminal element that occurs solely in the Yersinia YopD translocator family is essential for optimal T3SS and full disease progression. The predicted YopD C-terminal coiled-coil shapes a functional translocon inserted into host cell membranes. This translocon was seen to be a dynamic structure facilitating at least two roles during effectors delivery into cells; one to guarantee translocon pore insertion into target cell membranes and the other to promote targeted activity of internalized effector toxins. In Yersinia expression of yop genes and secretion of the corresponding polypeptides is tightly regulated at a transcriptional and post-transcriptional level. If T3S chaperones of the translocator class are known to influence transcriptional output of T3SS genes in other bacteria, we show that in Yersinia the class II T3S chaperone LcrH has no such effect on the LcrF transcriptional activator activity. We also demonstrate that there are possibly additional yop-regulatory roles for the LcrH chaperone besides forming a stable complex with YopD to impose post-transcriptional silencing on Yops synthesis. This mechanism that relies upon an active T3SS, might act independently of both YopD and the regulatory element LcrQ. In conclusion, this work has sought to delineate the encrypted functions of the YopD translocator that contribute to Yersinia T3SS-dependent pathogenesis. Contributions of the YopD cognate chaperone LcrH in yop regulatory control are also presented.

Bacteria that infect humans and animals face a hard combat with the host´s immune system and in order to establish infection, pathogenic bacteria has evolved mechanisms to avoid being cleared from the host tissue. Many Gram-negatives carry a Type 3 secretion (T3S) system that is used to deliver effector proteins (toxins) into host cells. The toxins exhibit a broad range of intra cellular effects that has in common that they increase the chances of the bacteria to establish infection, multiply in infected tissue or spread to other tissues or hosts. The object of this study was to analyse the mechanisms behind the T3S effectors delivery into target cells. Two bacterial proteins, LcrV and YopD, which are involved in the translocation of effectors were analyzed by mutagenesis. LcrV was found to affect the efficiency of the translocation, probably by determining the size of the pore in the target cell membrane through which the effectors pass. Truncated variants of the multi-functional YopD revealed that defined regions of the protein were important for pore-formation and translocation. Effectors and translocators were demonstrated to form complexes with free acyl chains (lipids) at the bacterial surface. These complexes –termed Yop-lipid complexes, (YLC)– are released from the surface and can act as discrete units that are able to promote translocation of effectors even when separated from the bacterium from which they originate. These findings shed new light on the process of effector translocation by Yersinia and possibly by other gram-negative bacterial pathogens with a similar T3S setup.

The Gram-negative bacterium Yersinia pseudotuberculosis employs a type 3 secretion system (T3SS) to establish infections. The T3SS translocates a diverse set of effector proteins directly into the host cells. The coordinate action of the translocated effectors blocks the innate immune system of the host and ensures extracellular proliferation of the bacterium. YopE is an essential effector that disrupts the actin cytoskeleton of infected host cells. This cytotoxicity is caused by the inactivation of RhoGTPases by the GTPase Activating Protein (GAP) activity of YopE. YopE was demonstrated to inactivate the RhoGTPases Rac1 and RhoA in vivo. However, Rac1 and RhoA inactivation was not a prerequisite for cytotoxicity or virulence. Thus, YopE must have additional targets during infection. Surprisingly, avirulent yopE mutants had lost the control of Yop expression in the presence of target cells and they all overtranslocated effectors. It appeared as if translocated YopE was able to control Yop expression and effector translocation via a feedback inhibition mechanism. This feedback inhibition was dependent on functional GAP activity. Translocation control could also be mediated by exogenous GAP activity, suggesting that effector translocation control might be a general property of all bacterial GAP proteins. Besides YopE, the regulatory protein YopK was also found to be involved in the effector translocation control process. Clearly, as demonstrated in virulence, the roles for YopE and YopK are intimately related.                       Further, YopE possesses a membrane localization domain (MLD) required for proper localization. A yopE∆MLD mutant had lost the feedback inhibition of YopE expression and was avirulent. Hence, the effector translocation control of YopE requires both proper localization as well as functional GAP activity.                                           In addition, fish keratocytes were established as a novel model system for Y. pseudotuberculosis infections. YopE was found to be the sole effector responsible for cytotoxicity towards the keratocytes. Further, induction of cytotoxicity required fully native YopE protein which indicated that the keratocytes would be useful as a sensitive model system for further studies of YopE mediated phenotypes. In summary, this thesis work has sought to unravel the multiple functions of translocated YopE. A novel role was elucidated where Yersinia utilizes translocated YopE to control the process of effector translocation into host cells. This regulatory control was connected to virulence in the mouse model of disease. Thus, perhaps YopE should be considered also as a regulatory protein besides being a classical effector.